Learning
What to remember
- Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that comes from experience or practice. Changes due to growth, fatigue, illness or drugs are not learning.
- Three behaviourist giants: Pavlov (classical conditioning, stimulus-stimulus link), Thorndike (trial and error, laws of readiness, exercise and effect) and Skinner (operant conditioning, reinforcement). Kohler's insight learning is the Gestalt answer to them.
- A teacher uses these ideas daily: reward good work at once, repeat practice in small steps, make the learner ready, and let the learner see the whole problem.
Meaning and nature of learning
Learning is a change in the way a person behaves, thinks or feels because of experience. It is permanent enough to last, but it is not always visible at once. It is gained, not inborn. Learning is goal-directed, it is active, it can be general or specific, and it is the base of all education.
Learning is not the same as maturation. A child walks mainly because of maturation. A child writes a letter only after practice and teaching. The two work together: learning needs a ready body and brain.
Types of learning
Learning is of many kinds. Some common ways to group it:
- Motor learning: gaining physical skills such as writing, cycling, swimming, typing.
- Verbal learning: learning words, names, poems, languages.
- Concept learning: forming ideas such as "triangle", "mammal", "democracy".
- Discrimination learning: telling similar things apart, for example the letters b and d.
- Principle learning: linking concepts into rules, such as "heat expands metals".
- Problem-solving learning: using known rules in a new situation. It is the highest form.
- Attitude learning: forming likes, dislikes and values.
Gagne grouped learning from simple to complex: signal learning, stimulus-response learning, chaining, verbal association, multiple discrimination, concept learning, principle learning and problem solving. Each level needs the lower one.
| Type | Simple example |
|---|---|
| Signal learning | A child starts crying at the sight of the doctor's white coat after earlier injections |
| Chaining | Opening a door: turn key, push, enter |
| Concept learning | Knowing all four-sided closed shapes are quadrilaterals |
| Problem solving | Using algebra to solve a new word problem |
Learning curves
A learning curve is a graph of performance against practice or time. The line shows how fast a person learns.
| Curve | Shape | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Positive acceleration | Slow start, then rises sharply | Learning is hard at first, then speeds up |
| Negative acceleration | Rises sharply, then flattens | Quick early gains, later gains are small (most common) |
| Linear | Straight line | Same gain in each trial |
| S-shaped (ogive) | Slow, fast, then slow | Mix of the above |
A plateau is a flat stretch in the curve where there is no visible progress for a time. Causes include fatigue, loss of interest or the need to move to a higher method. A teacher should encourage the learner, not blame him, and change the method.
Factors affecting learning
- Learner factors: maturation, readiness, intelligence, motivation, interest, health, fatigue, emotional state, attention.
- Material factors: meaningful material is learnt better than nonsense material; difficulty level, length and organisation matter.
- Method factors: whole method versus part method, distributed practice (rest gaps) versus massed practice, active participation, feedback.
- Environment factors: noise, light, seating, teacher behaviour, peer group, home atmosphere.
Distributed practice with short rests usually gives better and longer-lasting learning than long continuous practice.
Thorndike: trial and error (connectionism)
Edward L. Thorndike placed a hungry cat in a puzzle box with food outside. The cat made many random moves and finally pressed the latch by chance. In later trials, useless moves dropped and the time fell. This is learning by trial and error or selecting and connecting. He called the link between a stimulus and a response a bond (S-R bond), so his theory is called connectionism.
Main laws:
- Law of readiness: when a learner is ready to act, acting gives satisfaction; being forced when not ready causes annoyance.
- Law of exercise: practice strengthens the bond (law of use); disuse weakens it (law of disuse).
- Law of effect: a response followed by satisfaction is strengthened; one followed by annoyance is weakened. This is the most important law.
Later he said satisfaction strengthens a bond more than annoyance weakens it. Subsidiary ideas include multiple response, set or attitude, prepotency of elements, response by analogy and associative shifting.
Pavlov: classical conditioning
Ivan P. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, studied digestion in dogs. He saw that dogs salivated at the sight of the keeper or the sound of footsteps. He then rang a bell just before food.
| Term | Meaning | In the dog experiment |
|---|---|---|
| Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | Naturally causes a response | Food |
| Unconditioned response (UCR) | Natural reaction | Salivation to food |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | Neutral stimulus, after pairing | Bell |
| Conditioned response (CR) | Learnt reaction to the CS | Salivation to bell alone |
Key processes:
- Acquisition: the CS is repeatedly paired with the UCS and the CR becomes strong.
- Extinction: if the bell is rung many times without food, the response fades.
- Spontaneous recovery: after a rest the faded response suddenly returns.
- Generalisation: the dog responds to similar sounds as well.
- Discrimination: the dog learns to respond only to the right sound.
J. B. Watson used these ideas in the "Little Albert" study to show that fear can be learnt. In class, a child may fear a subject because of one harsh experience; a kind, warm setting can remove that fear (counter-conditioning).
Skinner: operant conditioning
B. F. Skinner used a Skinner box with rats and pigeons. The animal acts on the environment (operates), and what follows the act decides whether the act is repeated. This is also called instrumental or Type R conditioning. Pavlov's is Type S.
| Term | What happens | Effect on behaviour |
|---|---|---|
| Positive reinforcement | A pleasant thing is added | Increases it |
| Negative reinforcement | An unpleasant thing is removed | Increases it |
| Punishment | An unpleasant thing is added or a pleasant thing is removed | Decreases it |
| Extinction | Reinforcement is stopped | Behaviour fades |
Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Primary reinforcers (food, water) satisfy needs directly; secondary reinforcers (praise, marks, stars) gain value through association.
Schedules of reinforcement:
- Fixed ratio: reward after a fixed number of responses.
- Variable ratio: reward after an unpredictable number of responses; this gives the strongest and most lasting response (like gambling machines).
- Fixed interval: reward after a fixed time.
- Variable interval: reward after unpredictable time.
Skinner's ideas gave programmed learning and teaching machines: small steps, active response, immediate feedback and self-pacing. Shaping rewards closer and closer approximations of the final behaviour.
Insight learning (Gestalt view)
Wolfgang Kohler studied chimpanzees on Tenerife island. A chimp named Sultan could not reach bananas, then suddenly joined two sticks, or stacked boxes, to get them. This sudden "seeing" of the solution is insight or the "aha" experience. Insight needs the learner to see the whole situation and the relations among parts. It is not blind trial and error. Insight depends on intelligence, past experience and a well-presented problem.
Teaching use: give problems that must be understood, show the whole picture before details, and let students find solutions.
Classroom use at a glance
| Theory | Classroom practice |
|---|---|
| Thorndike | Make pupils ready; give practice; reward correct work |
| Pavlov | Create a pleasant class atmosphere; remove fear |
| Skinner | Immediate praise; small steps; programmed material |
| Kohler | Problem-solving; discovery of principles |
Exam traps
- Learning is not maturation; maturation is not learning.
- Pavlov = classical, Skinner = operant, Thorndike = trial and error. Do not swap them.
- Negative reinforcement is not punishment: one increases behaviour, the other reduces it.
- Extinction means fading of the response; spontaneous recovery means it returns after rest.
- Law of effect, not law of exercise, is the most important law of Thorndike.
- Kohler used chimpanzees, Thorndike cats, Pavlov dogs, Skinner rats and pigeons.
- Plateau is a flat part of the curve, not the end of learning.
- Variable ratio schedule, not fixed ratio, gives the most resistant response.
One-liners
- 1. Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour through experience.
- 2. Thorndike's theory is called connectionism or S-R bond theory.
- 3. The puzzle box was used by Thorndike.
- 4. Pavlov's CS in the classic study was a bell and the UCS was food.
- 5. Skinner's apparatus is the Skinner box.
- 6. Operant conditioning is also called instrumental conditioning.
- 7. Kohler's chimpanzee Sultan showed insight learning.
- 8. Insight learning is associated with Gestalt psychology.
- 9. The negative acceleration curve is the most common learning curve.
- 10. A plateau is a temporary halt in progress.
- 11. Programmed learning comes from Skinner's ideas.
- 12. Watson's Little Albert study showed that fear can be conditioned.
Practice questions
Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to
- experience or practice
- fatigue or illness
- maturation alone
- the effect of drugs
Answer
A. experience or practice
Changes from growth, fatigue or drugs are not learning.
The puzzle box experiment was carried out by
- Pavlov
- Thorndike
- Kohler
- Skinner
Answer
B. Thorndike
Thorndike used a cat in a puzzle box to study trial and error.
In Pavlov's experiment the food is the
- conditioned stimulus
- neutral stimulus
- conditioned response
- unconditioned stimulus
Answer
D. unconditioned stimulus
Food naturally causes salivation, so it is the UCS.
Skinner conducted his main experiments using
- cats and dogs
- rats and pigeons
- chimpanzees
- monkeys only
Answer
B. rats and pigeons
The Skinner box was used with rats and pigeons.
Sultan, a chimpanzee, is associated with the experiments of
- Kohler
- Watson
- Skinner
- Thorndike
Answer
A. Kohler
Kohler studied insight in chimpanzees on Tenerife.
Thorndike's theory of learning is also called
- operant theory
- gestalt theory
- humanism
- connectionism
Answer
D. connectionism
He saw learning as formation of S-R bonds.
The most important of Thorndike's primary laws is the law of
- readiness
- exercise
- effect
- disuse
Answer
C. effect
Satisfying results strengthen a bond; this is the key law.
A learning curve that rises sharply at first and then flattens is a
- linear curve
- negative acceleration curve
- positive acceleration curve
- zigzag curve
Answer
B. negative acceleration curve
Early gains are big; later gains become small.
A flat stretch in a learning curve where progress seems to stop is called a
- plateau
- extinction
- bond
- peak
Answer
A. plateau
A plateau is a temporary halt in progress.
Operant conditioning is another name for
- insight learning
- latent learning
- instrumental conditioning
- classical conditioning
Answer
C. instrumental conditioning
The organism's act is instrumental in getting the reward.
Gradual fading of a conditioned response when the UCS is no longer given is
- discrimination
- acquisition
- generalisation
- extinction
Answer
D. extinction
Without pairing, the CR dies out.
The sudden return of a faded conditioned response after a rest is
- generalisation
- reinforcement
- shaping
- spontaneous recovery
Answer
D. spontaneous recovery
The response reappears after a rest period.
Programmed learning is based mainly on the ideas of
- Kohler
- Skinner
- Pavlov
- Thorndike
Answer
B. Skinner
Small steps, active response and immediate feedback come from Skinner.
The sudden 'aha' understanding of a solution is called
- insight
- extinction
- trial and error
- conditioning
Answer
A. insight
Insight is seeing the relations in the whole situation.
A child fears injections after one painful visit and later fears the white coat of any doctor. This shows
- negative reinforcement
- spontaneous recovery
- stimulus generalisation
- extinction
Answer
C. stimulus generalisation
Fear spreads to similar stimuli.
A teacher gives a star to a student immediately after correct work. This is an example of
- positive reinforcement
- punishment
- extinction
- negative reinforcement
Answer
A. positive reinforcement
A pleasant thing is added, so the behaviour increases.
A student studies hard so that the parent stops scolding. The scolding is removed. This is
- classical conditioning
- negative reinforcement
- positive reinforcement
- punishment
Answer
B. negative reinforcement
Removal of an unpleasant thing increases the behaviour.
Which schedule of reinforcement produces the most lasting response?
- Fixed ratio
- Fixed interval
- Continuous reinforcement
- Variable ratio
Answer
D. Variable ratio
Unpredictable rewards keep the behaviour going longest.
Rewarding successive approximations of a target behaviour is called
- generalisation
- insight
- shaping
- extinction
Answer
C. shaping
Skinner used shaping to build complex behaviour step by step.
A student who learns to say 'b' and 'd' for the right letters has learnt through
- discrimination
- generalisation
- shaping
- extinction
Answer
A. discrimination
Telling similar stimuli apart is discrimination.
Which type of practice usually gives better retention for most tasks?
- Massed practice without breaks
- Distributed practice with short rests
- One long night session
- Practice only before exams
Answer
B. Distributed practice with short rests
Spaced practice reduces fatigue and strengthens learning.
A teacher first shows the whole diagram of a flower and then explains parts. This follows the view of
- Thorndike's theory
- Skinner's theory
- Pavlov's theory
- Gestalt psychology
Answer
D. Gestalt psychology
Gestalt stresses seeing the whole first.
The bond between stimulus and response grows stronger with repetition. This is Thorndike's law of
- readiness
- effect
- exercise
- analogy
Answer
C. exercise
Use strengthens a bond; disuse weakens it.
In Gagne's order, the highest type of learning is
- signal learning
- problem solving
- verbal association
- chaining
Answer
B. problem solving
Problem solving needs all lower types.
Type S conditioning is the name given to
- trial and error
- insight learning
- operant conditioning
- classical conditioning
Answer
D. classical conditioning
In Type S the stimulus comes first; in Type R the response operates.
Primary reinforcers are those that
- satisfy biological needs directly
- are learnt through association
- are marks and praise
- are only social rewards
Answer
A. satisfy biological needs directly
Food and water are primary; praise and marks are secondary.
Wrongly regarded as learning is a change caused by
- practice
- training
- fatigue
- study
Answer
C. fatigue
Fatigue causes temporary change, not learning.
Wolfgang Kohler's work belongs to the school of
- psychoanalysis
- humanism
- behaviourism
- Gestalt psychology
Answer
D. Gestalt psychology
Insight is the Gestalt explanation of problem solving.
Removing a child's fear of a subject by creating a warm, pleasant classroom links mostly with
- programmed learning
- insight learning
- classical conditioning
- shaping
Answer
C. classical conditioning
New pleasant associations replace the fear (counter-conditioning).
Learning that depends on the learner's readiness is explained by Thorndike's law of
- effect
- readiness
- exercise
- disuse
Answer
B. readiness
A ready learner finds action satisfying.
A teacher gives frequent small quizzes with immediate feedback. This applies chiefly the ideas of
- Skinner
- Thorndike's law of disuse
- Pavlov
- Kohler
Answer
A. Skinner
Immediate feedback and small steps follow Skinner.
A rat presses a lever and gets food each time. The lever press increases. This is
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
- imprinting
- insight
Answer
B. operant conditioning
A voluntary act is strengthened by its result.
Statements: 1. Pavlov's conditioning is based on the pairing of two stimuli. 2. In classical conditioning the reward depends on the response of the learner.
- 1 only
- 2 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Pavlov paired stimuli; reward depending on response is operant conditioning.
Statements: 1. Negative reinforcement and punishment are the same. 2. Positive reinforcement increases behaviour.
- 1 only
- 2 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Negative reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment reduces it, so 1 is false.
Statements: 1. Insight learning involves sudden understanding of the whole situation. 2. Kohler's work supports blind trial and error.
- 1 only
- 2 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Kohler argued against blind trial and error.
Statements: 1. A plateau shows permanent end of learning. 2. A plateau may occur because of fatigue or loss of interest.
- 1 only
- 2 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
A plateau is temporary, so 1 is false.
Statements: 1. Extinction occurs when the CS is repeated without the UCS. 2. Spontaneous recovery can follow extinction.
- 1 only
- 2 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
C. Both 1 and 2
Both are correct: the response fades and may come back after rest.
Statements: 1. Thorndike used a cat in his experiment. 2. Skinner's theory is called connectionism.
- 1 only
- 2 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Connectionism is Thorndike's theory.
Statements: 1. Variable ratio schedules give weak responses. 2. Programmed learning uses immediate feedback.
- 1 only
- 2 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
B. 2 only
Variable ratio gives the strongest response.
Statements: 1. Learning needs maturation as a base. 2. All behaviour change is learning.
- 1 only
- 2 only
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
Answer
A. 1 only
Only change through experience is learning.
Match the experimenter with the animal: 1. Pavlov 2. Thorndike 3. Kohler
- 1 cat, 2 dog, 3 chimpanzee
- 1 dog, 2 chimpanzee, 3 cat
- 1 chimpanzee, 2 cat, 3 dog
- 1 dog, 2 cat, 3 chimpanzee
Answer
D. 1 dog, 2 cat, 3 chimpanzee
Pavlov used dogs, Thorndike cats and Kohler chimpanzees.
Match the theory with the key term: 1. Pavlov 2. Skinner 3. Thorndike
- 1 law of effect, 2 conditioned response, 3 reinforcement
- 1 insight, 2 reinforcement, 3 shaping
- 1 reinforcement, 2 law of effect, 3 conditioned response
- 1 conditioned response, 2 reinforcement, 3 law of effect
Answer
D. 1 conditioned response, 2 reinforcement, 3 law of effect
Each term belongs to the named theorist as shown.
Match the curve with its feature: 1. Negative acceleration 2. Positive acceleration 3. Linear
- 1 steady gain, 2 fast early gain, 3 slow early gain
- 1 fast early gain, 2 steady gain, 3 slow early gain
- 1 fast early gain, 2 slow early gain, 3 steady gain
- 1 slow early gain, 2 fast early gain, 3 steady gain
Answer
C. 1 fast early gain, 2 slow early gain, 3 steady gain
Negative acceleration starts fast; positive starts slow; linear is steady.
Match the schedule with its rule: 1. Fixed ratio 2. Fixed interval 3. Variable ratio
- 1 reward after set time, 2 reward after random time, 3 reward after set number
- 1 reward after set time, 2 reward after set number, 3 reward after random time
- 1 reward after random number, 2 reward after set time, 3 reward after set number
- 1 reward after set number of responses, 2 reward after set time, 3 reward after random number of responses
Answer
D. 1 reward after set number of responses, 2 reward after set time, 3 reward after random number of responses
Ratio relates to the number of responses and interval to time.
Match the type of learning with the example: 1. Motor learning 2. Concept learning 3. Attitude learning
- 1 swimming, 2 respect for elders, 3 knowing what a mammal is
- 1 knowing what a mammal is, 2 swimming, 3 respect for elders
- 1 swimming, 2 knowing what a mammal is, 3 respect for elders
- 1 respect for elders, 2 swimming, 3 knowing what a mammal is
Answer
C. 1 swimming, 2 knowing what a mammal is, 3 respect for elders
Skill is motor, an idea is a concept, a value is an attitude.