Developmental Theorists

What to remember

• Piaget: stages of thinking (sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational). Vygotsky: social learning and the Zone of Proximal Development. Erikson: eight psychosocial crises.
• Kohlberg: three levels of moral reasoning. Freud: psychosexual stages. Skinner: operant conditioning. Bandura: learning by observation. Rogers: child-centred, humanistic view.
• Chomsky: inborn language device. Bruner: discovery learning and the spiral curriculum. Goleman: emotional intelligence.

Jean Piaget (cognitive development)

Children are active learners who build knowledge themselves (constructivism). Key terms:

• Schema: a mental structure or pattern of thought.
• Assimilation: fitting new information into an existing schema.
• Accommodation: changing the schema to fit new information.
• Equilibration: balance between assimilation and accommodation; it drives growth.
• Adaptation: assimilation and accommodation together.
• Egocentrism: inability to see from another's view (pre-operational).
• Conservation: quantity stays the same when shape changes (concrete operational).
• Object permanence: an object exists even when out of sight (sensorimotor).
• Animism: treating objects as alive (pre-operational).

Stages: sensorimotor (0-2), pre-operational (2-7), concrete operational (7-11), formal operational (11 and above). Classroom use: give hands-on activities and let children discover.

Lev Vygotsky (socio-cultural theory)

Knowledge is built through social interaction and language. Key ideas:

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the gap between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with help.
• Scaffolding: temporary support from a teacher or a more capable peer, which is slowly removed.
• More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): the person who guides.
• Private speech: talking to oneself to guide thought; it later turns inward.

Classroom use: group work, peer tutoring, guided questions.

Erik Erikson (psychosocial development)

Eight stages, each with a crisis that must be resolved.

In school age, praise for effort builds industry.

Lawrence Kohlberg (moral development)

Based on moral dilemmas such as the Heinz story.

Kohlberg looked at the reason behind the answer, not the answer itself.

Sigmund Freud (psychoanalytic theory)

Personality has three parts: id (pleasure, instinct), ego (reality) and superego (conscience). Psychosexual stages: oral (0-1), anal (1-3), phallic (3-6), latency (6-puberty), genital (puberty onward). Much of behaviour is driven by the unconscious. Defence mechanisms (repression, projection, rationalisation) protect the ego. Fixation means being stuck at a stage.

Noam Chomsky (language)

Children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), an inborn ability to learn grammar. Language grows from universal grammar plus exposure. He criticised the purely behaviourist explanation of language.

B. F. Skinner (operant conditioning)

Behaviour is shaped by its consequences.

• Positive reinforcement: adding something pleasant to increase a behaviour.
• Negative reinforcement: removing something unpleasant to increase a behaviour.
• Punishment: reduces a behaviour.
• Extinction: behaviour fades when reinforcement stops.

He used the Skinner box. He also supported programmed learning. Classroom use: praise, rewards, immediate feedback.

Albert Bandura (social learning)

People learn by watching models. Bobo doll experiment showed that children imitate aggression they see. Processes: attention, retention, reproduction, motivation. Vicarious reinforcement means learning from seeing others rewarded or punished. Self-efficacy is belief in one's own ability to succeed. Classroom use: the teacher is a model.

Carl Rogers (humanistic)

Person-centred approach. Each person has a tendency toward self-actualisation. Needs unconditional positive regard, empathy and genuineness. Self-concept is the way one sees oneself; a gap between real self and ideal self causes distress. He supported learner-centred, non-directive teaching.

Jerome Bruner (cognitive, discovery)

Three modes of representation: enactive (action), iconic (images), symbolic (language). Discovery learning and spiral curriculum (ideas revisited with growing depth). Scaffolding is also linked to Bruner. He said any subject can be taught to any child in an honest form at any stage.

Daniel Goleman (emotional intelligence)

Popularised emotional intelligence (EQ). Five parts: self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy and social skills. The term was first used by Salovey and Mayer. Good EQ supports success in school and life.

Matching sheet

Piaget stages in more detail

Classic task: pouring water from a short wide glass into a tall thin glass; a pre-operational child says the tall glass has more.

Skinner and the other conditioning views

Pavlov showed classical conditioning with dogs: a neutral stimulus (bell) paired with food gives a conditioned response (salivation). Thorndike gave the laws of readiness, exercise and effect and used the puzzle box with cats. Skinner added operant conditioning with rats and pigeons. Watson showed fear conditioning in "Little Albert". In classical conditioning the response is involuntary; in operant it is voluntary and followed by a consequence.

How teachers use these theories

Piaget: let children handle materials and make discoveries. Vygotsky: pair a weaker child with a stronger child and give hints. Erikson: set tasks the child can finish so that industry grows. Kohlberg: use moral stories and discussion of dilemmas. Skinner: give quick feedback and reward the right response. Bandura: show the behaviour you want. Rogers: accept the child and listen. Bruner: return to ideas at higher levels. Goleman: teach children to name and handle feelings.

Key terms often asked

Short comparison: Piaget and Vygotsky

Piaget saw the child as a lone scientist who learns by exploring; stages come first and teaching follows. Vygotsky saw learning as social: teaching can lead development. Piaget treated language as a result of thought; Vygotsky treated language as a tool that shapes thought. Both are constructivists, so teachers should keep the child active.

Maslow note

Abraham Maslow gave the hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem and self-actualisation. A hungry or frightened child cannot give full attention to learning. Rogers and Maslow are both humanistic psychologists.

Exam traps

• Assimilation fits the new into the old; accommodation changes the old.
• ZPD is Vygotsky's; the idea of scaffolding is also used by Bruner.
• Erikson's stages are psychosocial; Freud's are psychosexual.
• Skinner is operant conditioning; Pavlov is classical conditioning.
• Bandura says learning without direct reinforcement is possible.
• Chomsky is nativist; Skinner explains language through reinforcement.
• Latency is a Freud stage; "industry vs. inferiority" is Erikson's school-age stage.
• Goleman popularised EQ but did not first coin the term.

One-liners

• 1. Piaget's first stage is sensorimotor.
• 2. Vygotsky stressed culture and language.
• 3. ZPD means the zone between actual and potential development.
• 4. Erikson's adolescent crisis is identity vs. role confusion.
• 5. Kohlberg had three levels and six stages.
• 6. Freud's three parts are id, ego and superego.
• 7. Chomsky named the LAD.
• 8. Skinner is linked with reinforcement.
• 9. Bandura is linked with the Bobo doll study.
• 10. Rogers used the term unconditional positive regard.
• 11. Bruner is linked with the spiral curriculum.
• 12. Goleman is linked with emotional intelligence.

Practice questions

1. Fitting new information into an existing schema is called

   1. equilibration
   2. accommodation
   3. conservation
   4. assimilation
   Answer

   D. assimilation

   Assimilation uses old schemas for new input.

2. Changing a schema to fit new information is called

   1. extinction
   2. assimilation
   3. accommodation
   4. reinforcement
   Answer

   C. accommodation

   Accommodation modifies the schema.

3. The gap between what a child can do alone and with help is the

   1. schema
   2. Zone of Proximal Development
   3. critical period
   4. latency stage
   Answer

   B. Zone of Proximal Development

   This is Vygotsky's central idea.

4. Temporary support given by a teacher, withdrawn as the child gains skill, is

   1. scaffolding
   2. extinction
   3. punishment
   4. fixation
   Answer

   A. scaffolding

   Scaffolding supports learning in the ZPD.

5. Which theorist proposed eight psychosocial stages?

   1. Kohlberg
   2. Piaget
   3. Skinner
   4. Erikson
   Answer

   D. Erikson

   Erikson's stages cover the whole life span.

6. Erikson's crisis of adolescence is

   1. trust versus mistrust
   2. industry versus inferiority
   3. identity versus role confusion
   4. initiative versus guilt
   Answer

   C. identity versus role confusion

   Adolescents search for identity.

7. Industry versus inferiority is the crisis of

   1. adolescence
   2. infancy
   3. old age
   4. school age
   Answer

   D. school age

   Children develop a sense of competence in school years.

8. Trust versus mistrust is the first crisis and belongs to

   1. adolescence
   2. school age
   3. infancy
   4. middle adulthood
   Answer

   C. infancy

   Infants need reliable care.

9. Kohlberg's theory deals with

   1. moral development
   2. emotional intelligence
   3. language development
   4. creativity
   Answer

   A. moral development

   It describes levels of moral reasoning.

10. How many stages are there in Kohlberg's theory?

    1. Four
    2. Six
    3. Eight
    4. Three
    Answer

    B. Six

    Three levels with two stages each.

11. The Heinz dilemma was used by

    1. Bruner
    2. Piaget
    3. Kohlberg
    4. Freud
    Answer

    C. Kohlberg

    Kohlberg used dilemmas to study moral reasoning.

12. Id, ego and superego are the three parts of personality in

    1. Skinner's theory
    2. Bandura's theory
    3. Rogers's theory
    4. Freud's theory
    Answer

    D. Freud's theory

    Freud's psychoanalytic structure.

13. The Language Acquisition Device was proposed by

    1. Chomsky
    2. Skinner
    3. Piaget
    4. Vygotsky
    Answer

    A. Chomsky

    Chomsky argued for inborn language ability.

14. Operant conditioning is associated with

    1. Pavlov
    2. B. F. Skinner
    3. Rogers
    4. Bandura
    Answer

    B. B. F. Skinner

    Skinner studied reinforcement of voluntary behaviour.

15. The Bobo doll experiment was conducted by

    1. Bruner
    2. Watson
    3. Bandura
    4. Skinner
    Answer

    C. Bandura

    It showed imitation of observed aggression.

16. Unconditional positive regard is a key idea of

    1. Erikson
    2. Chomsky
    3. Freud
    4. Carl Rogers
    Answer

    D. Carl Rogers

    Rogers stressed acceptance of the person.

17. The spiral curriculum was suggested by

    1. Bruner
    2. Piaget
    3. Kohlberg
    4. Goleman
    Answer

    A. Bruner

    Ideas are revisited at increasing depth.

18. Emotional intelligence was popularised by

    1. Howard Gardner
    2. Daniel Goleman
    3. Guilford
    4. Terman
    Answer

    B. Daniel Goleman

    Goleman wrote widely on EQ.

19. Bruner's three modes of representation are

    1. oral, anal and phallic
    2. id, ego and superego
    3. enactive, iconic and symbolic
    4. trust, will and purpose
    Answer

    C. enactive, iconic and symbolic

    They go from action to images to language.

20. Belief in one's own ability to succeed is called

    1. self-efficacy
    2. equilibration
    3. fixation
    4. latency
    Answer

    A. self-efficacy

    This is a Bandura concept.

21. Giving praise immediately after a correct answer to increase it is

    1. punishment
    2. positive reinforcement
    3. negative reinforcement
    4. extinction
    Answer

    B. positive reinforcement

    Adding a pleasant stimulus raises the behaviour.

22. Removing an unpleasant task when a child behaves well to increase good behaviour is

    1. punishment
    2. positive reinforcement
    3. modelling
    4. negative reinforcement
    Answer

    D. negative reinforcement

    Removing an unpleasant stimulus strengthens behaviour.

23. A teacher models kind behaviour so that pupils copy it. This follows

    1. Bandura
    2. Freud
    3. Piaget
    4. Skinner
    Answer

    A. Bandura

    Learning through observation of models.

24. A teacher lets pupils handle objects and discover answers. This follows

    1. Skinner only
    2. Freud only
    3. Piaget and Bruner
    4. Chomsky only
    Answer

    C. Piaget and Bruner

    Activity and discovery fit constructivism.

25. A teacher pairs a weaker pupil with a stronger pupil and gives hints. This is based on

    1. Skinner
    2. Vygotsky
    3. Freud
    4. Kohlberg
    Answer

    B. Vygotsky

    Peer help works in the ZPD.

26. A child obeys only to avoid punishment. According to Kohlberg this is the

    1. conventional level
    2. post-conventional level
    3. formal level
    4. pre-conventional level
    Answer

    D. pre-conventional level

    Obedience and punishment is stage one.

27. A person who follows rules because law and order must be kept is at Kohlberg's

    1. conventional level
    2. sensorimotor level
    3. pre-conventional level
    4. post-conventional level
    Answer

    A. conventional level

    Stage four is law and order.

28. Latency is a stage in

    1. Bruner's theory
    2. Freud's psychosexual theory
    3. Piaget's theory
    4. Erikson's theory
    Answer

    B. Freud's psychosexual theory

    Latency lasts from about 6 years to puberty.

29. In Freud's theory, the part of personality that works on the pleasure principle is the

    1. superego
    2. self
    3. ego
    4. id
    Answer

    D. id

    The id seeks immediate satisfaction.

30. Learning and teaching in a way that treats the child as the centre, with empathy and acceptance, is supported by

    1. Skinner
    2. Thorndike
    3. Carl Rogers
    4. Pavlov
    Answer

    C. Carl Rogers

    Rogers promoted learner-centred education.

31. Statements: 1. Piaget saw the child as an active builder of knowledge. 2. Vygotsky stressed social interaction. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

32. Statements: 1. Erikson's stages are psychosocial. 2. Freud's stages are psychosexual. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

33. Statements: 1. Skinner explained learning through reinforcement. 2. Chomsky said language is only learned by reinforcement. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Chomsky argued for an inborn device.

34. Statements: 1. Bandura said learning can occur without direct reinforcement. 2. Learning by watching models is called observational learning. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

35. Statements: 1. Assimilation changes the schema. 2. Accommodation fits information into an old schema. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Both definitions are reversed.

36. Statements: 1. Kohlberg had three levels of moral reasoning. 2. Kohlberg looked at the reason behind the answer. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

37. Statements: 1. Goleman first used the term emotional intelligence. 2. Goleman popularised emotional intelligence. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Salovey and Mayer first used the term.

38. Statements: 1. Scaffolding is linked with Vygotsky and Bruner. 2. Scaffolding means permanent help. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Scaffolding is temporary.

39. Statements: 1. Piaget's concrete operational stage includes conservation. 2. The sensorimotor stage includes object permanence. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are true.

40. Match the theorist with the idea. 1. Chomsky 2. Bandura 3. Bruner

    1. 1 - observational learning; 2 - LAD; 3 - spiral curriculum
    2. 1 - LAD; 2 - observational learning; 3 - spiral curriculum
    3. 1 - spiral curriculum; 2 - LAD; 3 - observational learning
    4. 1 - LAD; 2 - spiral curriculum; 3 - observational learning
    Answer

    B. 1 - LAD; 2 - observational learning; 3 - spiral curriculum

    Standard matches.

41. Match the theorist with the idea. 1. Erikson 2. Kohlberg 3. Rogers

    1. 1 - moral levels; 2 - eight crises; 3 - self-concept
    2. 1 - eight crises; 2 - self-concept; 3 - moral levels
    3. 1 - self-concept; 2 - eight crises; 3 - moral levels
    4. 1 - eight crises; 2 - moral levels; 3 - self-concept
    Answer

    D. 1 - eight crises; 2 - moral levels; 3 - self-concept

    Erikson: crises; Kohlberg: moral levels; Rogers: self-concept.

42. Match the term with the theorist. 1. ZPD 2. Operant conditioning 3. Schema

    1. 1 - Skinner; 2 - Vygotsky; 3 - Piaget
    2. 1 - Vygotsky; 2 - Skinner; 3 - Piaget
    3. 1 - Vygotsky; 2 - Piaget; 3 - Skinner
    4. 1 - Piaget; 2 - Skinner; 3 - Vygotsky
    Answer

    B. 1 - Vygotsky; 2 - Skinner; 3 - Piaget

    ZPD is Vygotsky's, operant is Skinner's, schema is Piaget's.

43. Match Freud's stage with age. 1. Oral 2. Anal 3. Phallic

    1. 1 - 0 to 1 year; 2 - 1 to 3 years; 3 - 3 to 6 years
    2. 1 - 3 to 6 years; 2 - 1 to 3 years; 3 - 0 to 1 year
    3. 1 - 3 to 6 years; 2 - 0 to 1 year; 3 - 1 to 3 years
    4. 1 - 1 to 3 years; 2 - 0 to 1 year; 3 - 3 to 6 years
    Answer

    A. 1 - 0 to 1 year; 2 - 1 to 3 years; 3 - 3 to 6 years

    Oral first, anal second, phallic third.

44. Which pair is correctly matched?

    1. Freud - zone of proximal development
    2. Skinner - Language Acquisition Device
    3. Kohlberg - schema
    4. Erikson - psychosocial crises
    Answer

    D. Erikson - psychosocial crises

    Other pairs are mismatched.

45. A teacher gives a child a task slightly beyond the child's current level, with hints. The task lies in the

    1. critical stage
    2. latency period
    3. fixation
    4. ZPD
    Answer

    D. ZPD

    Tasks just beyond independent ability are best.