The Gupta Empire (c. 319–550 CE) — The "Golden Age"

10.1 Foundation and Expansion

• Founded by Chandragupta I (c. 319–335 CE), who started the Gupta Era (319 CE) and strengthened his position through marriage to Kumaradevi, a Lichchhavi princess.
• Samudragupta (c. 335–375 CE), often called the "Napoleon of India" by historian V.A. Smith, was a great conqueror. His military campaigns and policy of "Dig-vijaya" are recorded in the Prayaga Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar inscription), composed by his court poet Harishena. He performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice and was also a patron of the arts — coins depict him playing the veena. He followed a policy of direct annexation in Aryavarta (north India) and a policy of capture-and-release (Dharma-vijaya) in Dakshinapatha (south India).
• Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya" (c. 375–415 CE) is considered the greatest Gupta ruler; he defeated the Western Kshatrapas (Shakas) and annexed Gujarat/Malwa, gaining access to the western sea ports. His court is traditionally said to have hosted the "Navaratnas" (nine gems), including the poet Kalidasa, though this list is a later tradition and not contemporaneously verified. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien visited India during his reign and left an account of a prosperous, tolerant kingdom. The Iron Pillar of Mehrauli (Delhi), which has not rusted for over 1,600 years due to its unique metallurgical composition, bears an inscription of a King Chandra, generally identified with Chandragupta II.
• Later rulers: Kumaragupta I (founded Nalanda University), Skandagupta (successfully repelled early Hun invasions but at great cost, weakening the empire's finances).

10.2 Gupta Administration

• Central administration was more feudal in character than the Mauryan system, with several regions being governed as vassal/tributary states rather than direct provinces.
• King's titles: Maharajadhiraja, Parambhattaraka. Provinces (Bhuktis) were governed by Uparikas; districts (Vishayas) by Vishayapatis; villages by Gramikas.
• Land grants to Brahmanas and temples (agrahara grants) increased significantly, marking the beginnings of a more feudal socio-economic order.
• Gold coins (called dinaras, in imitation of Roman denarius) were issued in abundance and are artistically among the finest in ancient Indian numismatics.

10.3 Gupta Achievements — Science, Literature, and Art

• Mathematics and astronomy: Aryabhata (author of Aryabhatiya) calculated the value of pi, explained the causes of solar/lunar eclipses scientifically, and proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis. Varahamihira wrote the Brihat Samhita and Panchasiddhantika. The concept of zero and the decimal place-value system were developed/refined during this period.
• Medicine: The physicians Charaka (author of Charaka Samhita, though he actually predates the Gupta period and is associated with the Kushan court) and Sushruta (father of surgery, Sushruta Samhita) belong to classical Indian medical tradition, compiled/redacted in this broader era.
• Literature: Kalidasa (often called the "Shakespeare of India") wrote Abhijnanashakuntalam (a play, later translated into European languages and admired by Goethe), Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, and Ritusamhara. Other notable works: Panchatantra (attributed to Vishnu Sharma, animal fables), Vishnu Purana, Mrichchhakatika (by Shudraka), Amarakosha (Sanskrit lexicon by Amarasimha).
• Art and architecture: The Gupta period saw the flowering of the classical Gupta school of art — refined Buddha and Hindu deity images at Sarnath and Mathura; the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is an early example of a structural (as opposed to rock-cut) Hindu temple, marking the beginning of the Nagara temple style. The Ajanta Caves murals reached their artistic peak during this broader era (though spanning earlier and later periods too).
• Iron and metallurgy: The rust-resistant Iron Pillar of Delhi demonstrates advanced metallurgical skill.
• Religion: Vaishnavism and Shaivism gained prominence as the Guptas were themselves Vaishnavites (adopting the title "Parama Bhagavata"), though the empire remained broadly tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.

10.4 Decline

Invasions by the Hunas (White Huns) from Central Asia, beginning under Skandagupta and intensifying under later weak rulers (e.g., Mihirakula), combined with the rise of feudatory powers (such as the Later Guptas, Maukharis, and Vardhanas) and administrative decentralisation, led to the empire's fragmentation by the mid-6th century CE.