South Indian Kingdoms (c. 300–1200 CE)

12.1 The Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi)

• Founded by Pulakeshin I; the greatest ruler was Pulakeshin II, who defeated Harshavardhana and received a Persian embassy from Khusrau II (depicted in Ajanta cave murals).
• Capital at Badami (Vatapi); famous for rock-cut and structural temples at Badami, Aihole ("cradle of Indian temple architecture"), and Pattadakal (a UNESCO World Heritage Site showing both Nagara and Dravida styles side by side).
• Eventually overthrown by the Rashtrakutas under Dantidurga in the mid-8th century.

12.2 The Pallavas of Kanchipuram

• Rose to prominence in the 4th–9th centuries CE; capital at Kanchipuram; great rivals of the Chalukyas.
• Notable rulers: Mahendravarman I (also a playwright, wrote Mattavilasaprahasana) and Narasimhavarman I "Mamalla" (defeated Pulakeshin II; built the famous shore temple and rathas (chariot temples) at Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, in Dravida style).
• Patronised the Bhakti saints (Alvars for Vaishnavism, Nayanars for Shaivism) and established the University at Kanchipuram.

12.3 The Rashtrakutas

• Rose in the Deccan after overthrowing the Chalukyas; capital at Manyakheta (Malkhed).
• Krishna I built the magnificent monolithic rock-cut Kailasa Temple at Ellora, dedicated to Shiva, carved from a single rock — an extraordinary feat of ancient engineering, described by Arab travellers as one of the wonders of the world.
• Amoghavarsha I, a notable ruler, wrote the Kannada text Kavirajamarga and patronised Jainism.

12.4 The Cholas (Imperial Chola period, c. 850–1279 CE)

• Revived by Vijayalaya Chola; the Cholas became the dominant power of South India, with a formidable navy that controlled trade across the Bay of Bengal.
• Rajaraja I "Chola" (985–1014 CE) built the magnificent Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur (a UNESCO World Heritage "Great Living Chola Temple," a masterpiece of Dravidian architecture with a 216-foot vimana) and conquered Sri Lanka and the Maldives.
• Rajendra I Chola extended the empire further, launched a famous naval expedition against the Srivijaya Empire (Southeast Asia, present-day Indonesia/Malaysia), and led a northern expedition up to the Ganga, after which he assumed the title "Gangaikonda Chola" and built a new capital, Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
• The Cholas are especially noted for local self-government: village assemblies (Sabha for Brahmana villages, Ur for non-Brahmana villages) with elected committees (Variyams) — recorded in detail in the Uttaramerur inscriptions, showing an early, sophisticated system of local democracy including the use of pot-tickets (kudavolai) for elections.
• Chola bronze sculpture, especially the iconic Nataraja (dancing Shiva) images, represents one of the high points of Indian metal art.

12.5 The Pandyas

• Ruled from Madurai, revived after Chola decline; famous for the Meenakshi Temple at Madurai (though much of its present structure is later, from the Nayaka period).