Art and Architecture of Ancient India in Depth

17.1 Stupa Architecture

• A stupa is a solid, dome-shaped mound built over relics of the Buddha or other venerated objects; it symbolises the Buddha's Mahaparinirvana. Structurally, a stupa consists of the anda (dome), harmika (a railed enclosure atop the dome), chhatra (umbrella-like structure symbolising royalty/protection), a base medhi, and a surrounding railing (vedika) with ornamental gateways (torana).
• The Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh) was originally commissioned by Ashoka and later enlarged in brick and stone; its four elaborately carved toranas (gateways), added under the Satavahanas, are masterpieces depicting Jataka tales without directly showing the Buddha in human form (early Buddhist art favoured symbols — the empty throne, footprints, the wheel, the Bodhi tree — over a human image).
• Other important stupas: Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh, famous railing/gateway carvings, now largely in the Indian Museum, Kolkata), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh, on the Krishna river, one of the largest stupas, its remains dispersed to various museums including the British Museum), and Piprahwa (Uttar Pradesh, near the Nepal border, believed to contain a portion of the Buddha's relics).

17.2 Cave Architecture

• Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra, on the Waghora river): A series of 29 rock-cut Buddhist caves (chaityas — prayer halls, and viharas — monasteries) excavated in two main phases (roughly 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE under Vakataka patronage). World-famous for their fresco-style wall paintings depicting Jataka tales, considered among the finest surviving examples of ancient Indian painting. Rediscovered in 1819 by a British officer, John Smith, during a tiger hunt.
• Ellora Caves (Maharashtra): A complex of 34 caves representing three religions side by side — Buddhist (caves 1–12), Hindu (caves 13–29, including the monolithic Kailasa Temple built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I), and Jain (caves 30–34) — reflecting the religious pluralism of the period, roughly 6th–10th centuries CE.
• Karle and Bhaja Caves (Maharashtra): Early rock-cut chaitya halls patronised by the Satavahanas, notable for their horseshoe-shaped chaitya arches and wooden-style stone ribbing.
• Elephanta Caves (near Mumbai): Famous for the monumental Trimurti (three-headed) Shiva sculpture, from roughly the 5th–8th century CE.
• Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (Odisha): Associated with the Kalinga king Kharavela, mainly Jain in affiliation, with the Hathigumpha inscription providing key historical data.

17.3 Temple Architecture: Nagara vs Dravida Styles

• Structural (free-standing) temple architecture began to emerge clearly in the Gupta period, evolving over the following centuries into two broad regional styles.
• Nagara style (North India): Characterised by a curvilinear tower called shikhara over the sanctum (garbhagriha); typically has no large boundary wall or elaborate gateway tower. Sub-styles include Odisha (e.g., Lingaraja Temple, Konark Sun Temple — though the latter is more medieval), Khajuraho/Chandela style, and Solanki style (Gujarat).
• Dravida style (South India): Characterised by a pyramidal tower called vimana, often surrounded by a high compound wall with monumental ornamented gateway towers (gopuram) — the gopurams became progressively taller and more elaborate over the medieval period, especially under the Vijayanagara and Nayaka rulers. The Pallava rathas at Mahabalipuram and the Chola Brihadeeswarar Temple exemplify the developed Dravida style.
• Vesara style (an intermediate/hybrid style): Associated with the Deccan, especially Chalukya and Hoysala temples (e.g., at Pattadakal, Belur, and Halebidu), blending elements of both Nagara and Dravida forms.

17.4 Sculpture and Iconography

• Early Buddhist art (Sanchi, Bharhut) is largely aniconic (avoiding direct depiction of the Buddha).
• The Gandhara School (1st–5th century CE, under Kushan patronage) shows strong Greco-Roman/Hellenistic influence: Buddha images have wavy hair, draped robes with naturalistic folds, and a generally Western facial appearance; grey schist was the common medium.
• The Mathura School (contemporary with Gandhara, indigenous in origin): Buddha images are more robust, made from spotted red sandstone, with a thinner, more transparent-appearing robe over one shoulder; this school also produced early Jain and Hindu images.
• The Amaravati School (Andhra, under Satavahana patronage): White/pale-green limestone (marble-like), with slender, elegantly posed figures and intricate narrative panels.
• Chola bronzes, cast using the lost-wax (cire perdue) technique, represent one of the artistic peaks of Indian metal sculpture, especially the many forms of Nataraja, Somaskanda, and various Vaishnava and Shaiva deities.