The Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)

7.1 Chandragupta Maurya (321–297 BCE)

• Founded the Mauryan Empire with the guidance of his mentor Chanakya (Kautilya), author of the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy.
• Overthrew Dhana Nanda and later defeated the Greek satrap Seleucus Nicator (Alexander's general who inherited the eastern territories) around 305 BCE. The resulting treaty gave the Mauryas the regions of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the Hindu Kush, in exchange for 500 elephants; Seleucus's ambassador Megasthenes stayed at the Mauryan court and wrote Indica.
• Chandragupta is said to have later abdicated the throne, converted to Jainism under Bhadrabahu, and died by sallekhana (ritual fasting) at Shravanabelagola.

7.2 Bindusara (297–273 BCE)

• Son of Chandragupta; called "Amitraghata" ("slayer of foes") by the Greeks (Amitrochates). Extended the empire further south (up to Karnataka); maintained diplomatic relations with the Hellenistic world (Greek ambassador Deimachus at his court).

7.3 Ashoka the Great (268–232 BCE)

• Widely regarded as one of the greatest rulers in Indian history; son of Bindusara.
• The Kalinga War (261 BCE) was the turning point of his reign — the massive bloodshed (described in his own Rock Edict XIII) led him to renounce armed conquest and embrace Dhamma (a code of ethical conduct, not identical to Buddhism per se, though he personally converted to and promoted Buddhism) and "Dhammavijaya" (conquest by righteousness).
• He sent Buddhist missionaries across and beyond India, including his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka (to King Devanampiya Tissa).
• Convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra under Moggaliputta Tissa.
• Ashokan inscriptions: Major Rock Edicts (14 in number, found at sites like Girnar, Kalsi, Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra, Dhauli, Jaugada), Minor Rock Edicts, Pillar Edicts (7 in number), and Cave inscriptions (Barabar caves, gifted to Ajivikas). Written mostly in Prakrit using Brahmi script (Kharosthi in the northwest; Greek/Aramaic in Afghanistan).
• The Sarnath Lion Capital (four lions back to back on an abacus with a chakra, bull, horse, elephant, lion) is his most iconic monument — adopted as India's National Emblem; the Ashoka Chakra (24 spokes) from its abacus is on the National Flag.
• Rock Edict XIII names contemporary Hellenistic kings (Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy II of Egypt, Antigonus of Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene, Alexander of Epirus) to whom he sent Dhamma missions, providing crucial synchronous dating.
• James Prinsep deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837, enabling Ashokan edicts to be read and Ashoka's identity firmly established (earlier confused with the Puranic "Piyadassi").

7.4 Mauryan Administration

• Highly centralised bureaucracy described in the Arthashastra and by Megasthenes. The empire was divided into provinces headed by princes/governors (Kumaras) at centres like Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri, and Tosali.
• Espionage system with secret agents ("Gudhapurushas"); a city administration for Pataliputra described by Megasthenes as run by six committees (boards) of five members each, handling industry, foreigners, births/deaths, trade, manufacture, and tax collection.
• Ashoka appointed special officers called Dhamma Mahamatras to spread and oversee moral policy.
• Trade flourished with royal highways connecting Pataliputra to Taxila; state controlled mines, forests, and key industries.

7.5 Decline

The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated in 185 BCE by his own commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, who founded the Shunga dynasty. Causes of decline include weak successors after Ashoka, financial strain from a large bureaucracy/army, provincial revolts, and possibly Brahmanical backlash against Ashoka's pro-Buddhist and anti-sacrifice policies.