Sources of Ancient Indian History

Ancient Indian history is reconstructed from a combination of literary, archaeological, and foreign accounts, since ancient India did not maintain a continuous historical chronicle in the way Greek or Chinese civilizations did.

Literary Sources

• Religious texts: The four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, the two epics (Ramayana and Mahabharata), Puranas (18 in number, compiled by Vyasa), and the Dharmashastras (Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti) provide insight into social, religious, and political life.
• Buddhist literature: Tripitakas (Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka), Jatakas, and Milindapanho (dialogue between Menander/Milinda and monk Nagasena).
• Jain literature: Angas, Upangas, and other canonical texts compiled at the Council of Valabhi.
• Secular literature: Kautilya's Arthashastra (statecraft and economy under the Mauryas), Panini's Ashtadhyayi (Sanskrit grammar), Patanjali's Mahabhashya, Kalidasa's works (Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha), Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa (Chandragupta Maurya's rise), Banabhatta's Harshacharita (biography of Harshavardhana), and Sandhyakar Nandi's Ramacharita.
• Sangam literature: A vast corpus of Tamil poetry (Ettutogai, Pattupattu) that is the primary source for South Indian history in the early centuries CE.

Foreign Accounts

• Greek writers: Herodotus ("Father of History"), Megasthenes (Indica, Greek ambassador at the Mauryan court of Chandragupta Maurya), Strabo, and Arrian.
• Chinese travellers: Fa-Hien (Faxian) visited during Chandragupta II's reign; Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang), called the "Prince of Pilgrims," visited during Harshavardhana's reign and left Si-Yu-Ki; I-tsing visited later in the 7th century.
• Others: The account of the Arab geographer Al-Biruni (Tahqiq-i-Hind), though this is more medieval in scope.

Archaeological Sources

• Inscriptions (Epigraphy): Ashokan edicts (Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts; Greek and Aramaic in the northwest), the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, the Junagadh (Girnar) rock inscription of Rudradaman I, the Allahabad Pillar inscription (Prayaga Prashasti) of Samudragupta composed by Harishena, the Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, and the Nasik inscriptions of the Satavahanas.
• Coins (Numismatics): Punch-marked coins (earliest Indian coins), Indo-Greek coins (bilingual legends), Kushan gold coins, and Gupta gold coins (dinaras) reveal trade, rulers' names, titles, and economic conditions.
• Monuments and excavations: Sites like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal, Sanchi, Bharhut, Nalanda, and Ajanta-Ellora.
• Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was founded by Alexander Cunningham in 1861, who is regarded as the "Father of Indian Archaeology."