Religious Movements: Jainism and Buddhism

5.1 Background

By the 6th century BCE, complex rituals, the dominance of Brahmanical priesthood, and rigid varna divisions led to widespread discontent, particularly among the Kshatriya and Vaishya classes in the new urban centres of the Ganga plains. This gave rise to heterodox (non-Vedic) movements, of which Jainism and Buddhism became the most influential and enduring.

5.2 Jainism

• Jainism holds that there were 24 Tirthankaras ("ford-makers"). The first was Rishabhanatha (Adinatha); the 23rd was Parshvanatha (a historical figure, son of King Ashvasena of Varanasi, who preached four vows).
• The 24th and last Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE, though dates are debated), born at Kundagrama near Vaishali to Kshatriya parents — father Siddhartha (chief of the Jnatrika clan) and mother Trishala. He attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience) at age 42 under a sal tree near the river Rijupalika, and gave his first sermon at Pava, where he also attained Nirvana/Moksha (death) at age 72.
• Mahavira added a fifth vow (Brahmacharya, celibacy) to Parshvanatha's four vows, together forming the Panch Mahavrata: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha (non-possession), and Brahmacharya.
• Core philosophy: Triratna (Three Jewels) — Right Faith (Samyak Darshana), Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana), Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra). Jainism does not believe in a creator God but accepts the doctrine of karma and the eternity of the soul (jiva) and matter (ajiva). It emphasizes Anekantavada (doctrine of manifold viewpoints) and Syadvada.
• Jainism split into two sects at the First Council of Pataliputra (under Sthulabhadra): Svetambara ("white-clad") and Digambara ("sky-clad"/naked). The Second Council was held at Valabhi, where the Jain canon (Agamas) was finally compiled in writing.
• Royal patrons: Chandragupta Maurya (traditionally said to have become a Jain monk and died at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka by the practice of sallekhana), Kharavela of Kalinga.
• Key pilgrimage/art sites: Shravanabelagola (Gomateshwara/Bahubali statue, erected by Chamundaraya), Mount Abu (Dilwara temples), Khajuraho, Palitana.

5.3 Buddhism

• Founder: Siddhartha Gautama, born c. 563 BCE at Lumbini (in present-day Nepal) to Shuddhodana, chief of the Shakya clan, and Maya Devi. Raised by stepmother Mahaprajapati Gautami after his mother's early death. Married Yashodhara; son Rahula.
• The Four Sights (an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and an ascetic) prompted his "Great Renunciation" (Mahabhinishkramana) at age 29.
• He attained enlightenment (Nirvana/Bodhi) at age 35 under a peepal tree at Bodh Gaya on the bank of river Niranjana (Falgu), thereafter known as the Buddha ("the Enlightened One").
• His first sermon ("Dharma Chakra Pravartana," turning the wheel of law) was delivered at Sarnath (near Varanasi) to five disciples.
• He died (Mahaparinirvana) at age 80 at Kushinagar (in present-day Uttar Pradesh), after eating a meal offered by Chunda.
• Four Noble Truths: (1) The world is full of suffering (dukkha); (2) suffering has a cause (samudaya, i.e., desire/tanha); (3) suffering can be ended (nirodha); (4) there is a path to end suffering (magga).
• Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga): Right View, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration — also called the Madhyama Pratipada (Middle Path), avoiding both extreme luxury and extreme asceticism.
• Buddhism rejected the authority of the Vedas, the varna system's rigidity, animal sacrifice, and belief in a permanent soul (anatta) or a creator god, while accepting karma and rebirth.
• Buddhist Councils:
• First Council — Rajgriha (483 BCE), under patronage of Ajatashatru, presided by Mahakassapa; compiled Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka.
• Second Council — Vaishali (383 BCE), under Kalasoka; led to the Sthavira-Mahasanghika split.
• Third Council — Pataliputra (250 BCE), under Ashoka, presided by Moggaliputta Tissa; compiled Abhidhamma Pitaka; Tripitaka finalised.
• Fourth Council — Kundalvana, Kashmir (1st–2nd century CE), under Kanishka, presided by Vasumitra; led to the Hinayana-Mahayana split.
• Sects: Hinayana (orthodox, "Lesser Vehicle," idol-less, individual salvation) and Mahayana ("Greater Vehicle," idol worship of Buddha as a saviour figure, developed under Kushans). Theravada, prevalent in Sri Lanka/Southeast Asia, is a surviving Hinayana school.
• Great royal patrons: Ashoka (Mauryan), Kanishka (Kushan), Harshavardhana.
• Major centres of learning: Nalanda, Vikramashila, Taxila, Odantapuri — Nalanda flourished especially under Gupta and later Pala patronage.
• Buddhist symbols: Lotus/lion (birth), horse (renunciation), Bodhi tree (enlightenment), Dharma Chakra/wheel (first sermon), stupa (Mahaparinirvana/death).