Indian history appears in APPSC general studies, in the AP DSC general knowledge and social studies content, and in the AP Police Constable and SI papers. The questions are rarely about long narratives. They ask for a date, a founder, a place, a treaty, an act or a person, and they set distractors that are close in time. A single structured guide with timelines is the quickest way to hold the whole subject in your head, and that is the purpose of these notes: one pass through ancient, medieval and modern India, ordered by period, with the dates that matter and the traps that examiners like.
The dates here were checked against NCERT textbooks (the Class 12 Themes in Indian History volumes and the Class 8 Our Pasts III chapters, opened from the NCERT site) and cross-checked against a reference encyclopedia. Where historians disagree, the note says "c." for circa or gives the range. The facts are static, so nothing in this post depends on the current year, and no living office-holder is named. The Andhra Pradesh angle, which carries a lot of weight in AP papers, is covered in separate posts that are linked instead of repeated: ancient Andhra from the Satavahanas to the Eastern Chalukyas, medieval Andhra from the Kakatiyas to Vijayanagara and the Qutb Shahis, the freedom struggle and social reform in Andhra and the formation of Andhra Pradesh, from the Andhra movement to 1956 and 2014.
1. How to read dates before you memorise them
Two conventions cause most careless errors. First, BCE dates run backwards: 321 BCE is earlier than 261 BCE, so a king who reigned "from 321" came before one who fought a war "in 261". Second, "c." means the date is approximate, and an exam that gives a single date for an early event is usually using the textbook date. The rule in this guide is to learn the textbook date and the order of events, because the order is what questions test.
A practical method is to carry five anchor dates and hang everything else from them: 1526 (Panipat, start of the Mughals), 1757 (Plassey), 1857 (the revolt), 1885 (the Congress), and 1947 (Independence). Almost any event in medieval or modern India can be placed as "before 1526", "between 1526 and 1757", "between 1757 and 1857", and so on. When you cannot recall a date in the exam, placing the event in the right band often eliminates two options.
2. The Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilisation
NCERT gives the whole span of the civilisation as roughly 6000 BCE to 1300 BCE, divided into three phases. The Early Harappan phase runs from about 6000 to 2600 BCE. The Mature Harappan phase, the urban phase, runs from about 2600 to 1900 BCE and is the most prosperous. The Late Harappan phase, in which the civilisation declines, runs from about 1900 to 1300 BCE. Older textbooks give a shorter range for the mature phase, so if an exam question offers c. 2600 to 1900 BCE, that is the NCERT answer.
The civilisation is named after Harappa, the site where it was first identified, and it is also called the Indus Valley Civilisation. Its distinctive pottery, baked and unbaked bricks, seals, weights, beads and copper and bronze articles have been found over a very wide region, from Afghanistan and Baluchistan to Sindh and Punjab in Pakistan and the Indian States of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
| Site | Present location | Remembered for |
|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Punjab, Pakistan | The type site, granaries |
| Mohenjodaro | Sindh, Pakistan | The Great Bath on the citadel |
| Rakhigarhi | Hisar, Haryana | One of the largest Harappan cities in extent |
| Dholavira | Gujarat | Water reservoirs, a distinctive town layout |
| Lothal | Gujarat | Dockyard, bead-making |
| Kalibangan | Rajasthan | Ploughed field of the early phase |
| Banawali | Haryana | Another Harappan town in the Ghaggar region |
Notice how the examiner builds a distractor: Dholavira and Lothal are both in Gujarat, so a question on "water reservoirs" has Dholavira as the answer while a question on "dockyard" has Lothal. Learn the single feature of each site.
The central features are town planning on a grid, baked-brick houses, drainage, a citadel and a lower town (at Lothal the citadel was not walled off, in contrast to other sites), standard weights, and seals of steatite carrying animal motifs and a script that remains undeciphered. The Harappans traded with Mesopotamia, which the Mesopotamian records call Meluhha. The decline is attributed by scholars to a mix of climate change, river shifts and the weakening of trade, and no single cause is accepted by every historian. For exams, avoid any option that says "invasion" as the settled cause.
3. Vedic ages, Mahajanapadas and the rise of Magadha
The Rigvedic period and the Later Vedic period follow the Harappan decline in the textbook sequence, and the usual dating places the Rigveda in the second millennium BCE, though scholars do not agree on a precise date. For examination purposes learn the order, not the year: the Rigvedic society was pastoral, with the tribal assembly (sabha and samiti) and a chief called the rajan, and the Later Vedic period saw the rise of larger kingdoms, the growth of agriculture and the shaping of the varna order. The later texts, the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads, are the philosophical and ritual literature of this phase.
The sixth century BCE is treated in NCERT as a major turning point in early Indian history. It is the era of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, large states such as Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti, Kashi and Anga, and it is also the era of new religious movements, Buddhism and Jainism, centred on Gautama Buddha and Mahavira, who lived around the sixth to fifth century BCE. Both movements used the popular language of the time, Pali and Prakrit, rather than Sanskrit, and both challenged the authority of Vedic ritual.
Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE Magadha emerged as the strongest of the states. Its early rulers include Bimbisara and Ajatashatru, followed by dynasties that culminated in the Nandas. The growth of Magadha rested on iron tools, fertile land on the Ganga, elephants for war and the control of river trade, and its capital moved to Pataliputra. In 326 BCE Alexander of Macedon invaded the north-west, and his withdrawal left a political vacuum in which the next empire formed.
4. The Mauryan Empire
NCERT dates the founding of the empire to about 321 BCE under Chandragupta Maurya. He is linked in tradition with Chanakya (Kautilya), though scholars now think the text called the Arthashastra was compiled by more than one author over time and is not a straightforward Mauryan record. Chandragupta's dealings with Seleucus, a successor of Alexander, ended in a treaty around 305 BCE, and the Greek envoy Megasthenes wrote an account called the Indica, which survives only in fragments quoted by later writers. Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta.
Ashoka, the third ruler, is known from his own inscriptions on rocks and pillars, which are among the most important sources of early Indian history. They were written mostly in Prakrit in the Brahmi script, and in the north-west also in Kharoshthi, Greek and Aramaic. The Kalinga war of about 261 BCE, in which very large numbers were killed or displaced, is the event after which Ashoka turned to dhamma, a policy of moral conduct, tolerance and welfare, and appointed special officers (dhamma mahamattas) to spread it. The decisive point for examinations is that the edicts, not later chronicles, record his remorse. The empire fell apart after his death, and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was killed by his general Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 BCE.
Mauryan administration is a useful scoring area. The empire was divided into provinces under princes or governors, with a large professional bureaucracy, a standing army, a spy network and a land-revenue system. The capital was Pataliputra, and the empire did not cover the whole subcontinent; as NCERT notes, it did not include much of the south, where Tamil chiefdoms known from the Sangam texts held power.
5. After the Mauryas: Shungas, Satavahanas, Kushanas and the Sangam age
The centuries after the Mauryas saw regional powers rise. The Shungas ruled in the Gangetic plain from c. 185 BCE. In central India and the Deccan the Satavahanas rose to power from about the second century BCE, and their rule over parts of the Telugu country is the heart of the Andhra ancient-history questions covered in the ancient Andhra post. The Shakas, a people of Central Asian origin, ruled in western India. The Kushanas, who ruled over a vast kingdom from about the first century BCE to the first century CE, are noted for their gold coins and their patronage of both Buddhism and the Gandhara art style, and the most famous Kushana ruler is Kanishka. An era beginning in 78 CE, the Shaka era, is traditionally linked to him, but the precise date of his accession is debated, so treat it as "traditional".
In the far south the Sangam age produced early Tamil literature, and Roman trade through the ports of the Malabar and Coromandel coasts brought gold coins into the peninsula. NCERT notes that the first gold coins in the subcontinent date to about the first century CE.
6. The Gupta Age
The Gupta period is conventionally dated from the early fourth century CE, with Chandragupta I (c. 319 to 335 CE), Samudragupta (c. 335 to 375), Chandragupta II (c. 375 to 415), Kumaragupta I (c. 415 to 455) and Skandagupta (c. 455 to 467). NCERT lists Chandragupta II's reign as c. 375 to 415 CE. The Gupta era is counted from 319 to 320 CE.
| Ruler | Approximate reign | Known for |
|---|---|---|
| Chandragupta I | c. 319 to 335 CE | Founder of the imperial line; marriage alliance with the Licchavis (traditional) |
| Samudragupta | c. 335 to 375 CE | Allahabad Pillar prasasti composed by Harisena, listing his conquests; sometimes called the "Napoleon of India" by modern writers |
| Chandragupta II | c. 375 to 415 CE | Expansion into western India; Chinese monk Fa-Hien (Faxian) visited during his reign; title Vikramaditya |
| Kumaragupta I | c. 415 to 455 CE | Nalanda is linked to his patronage |
| Skandagupta | c. 455 to 467 CE | Faced the Huna invasions |
The age is remembered for the golden age of Sanskrit literature (Kalidasa), mathematics and astronomy (Aryabhata), temple architecture, and land grants to Brahmanas and religious institutions, which changed the rural order. A recurring trap is to confuse the Gupta and Mauryan gold: the Guptas issued many gold coins, whereas the Mauryan evidence is mostly punch-marked silver. The Huna invasions weakened the Guptas in the late fifth century, and the empire ended in the sixth century.
After the Guptas, Harsha ruled in the north in the first half of the seventh century, with Kanauj as his capital, and the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited India during this time. In the south, the Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi and later the Cholas became the main powers, and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, linked in the AP ancient-history post, carried Chalukya rule onto the Andhra coast.
7. Early medieval India and the Delhi Sultanate
The Cholas rose to power in the ninth century and reached their height under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I in the tenth and eleventh centuries, with a naval reach across the Bay of Bengal, and a famous village-level system of local government attested in inscriptions. For Andhra, the Chola and Eastern Chalukya relationship is explained in the AP posts.
The Delhi Sultanate begins with Muhammad of Ghor's defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan at the second Battle of Tarain in 1192, and Qutbuddin Aybak established the first dynasty after 1206. NCERT lists Qutbuddin Aybak 1206 to 1210 and the Sayyid ruler Khizr Khan 1414 to 1421. The Sultanate lasted until the first Battle of Panipat in 1526.
| Dynasty | Approximate dates | Notable rulers |
|---|---|---|
| Mamluk (Slave) | 1206 to 1290 | Aybak, Iltutmish, Raziyya, Balban |
| Khalji | 1290 to 1320 | Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji |
| Tughluq | 1320 to 1413/14 | Ghiyasuddin, Muhammad Tughluq, Firuz Shah |
| Sayyid | 1414 to 1451 | Khizr Khan |
| Lodi | 1451 to 1526 | Bahlul, Sikandar, Ibrahim Lodi |
The things most often asked are these. Iltutmish (ruled from about 1211 to 1236) consolidated the Sultanate. His daughter Raziyya became Sultan in 1236, and NCERT notes she was removed from the throne in 1240; she was the first woman to rule the Delhi Sultanate. Balban strengthened the monarchy in the second half of the thirteenth century. Alauddin Khalji faced Mongol attacks and responded with a large army, market controls and a revenue system that took a larger share from the peasant. Muhammad Tughluq, the Tughluq ruler who began in 1325, is known for shifting the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (about 1327) and for the token currency experiment (about 1329 to 1332). The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited his court in the fourteenth century. Firuz Shah Tughluq reigned from 1351 to 1388 and built canals and towns. Timur sacked Delhi in December 1398, which weakened the Sultanate decisively.
The southern powers of this period matter in AP papers. The Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Vijayanagara Empire (founded in 1336) and the Bahmani Sultanate (from 1347) and its successors are the heart of the medieval-Andhra questions; see the medieval Andhra post for the sequence. The Bhakti and Sufi movements, which NCERT dates across roughly the eighth to the eighteenth century, shaped social and religious life: Kabir, Guru Nanak and Mirabai in the north, and the Alvars and Nayanars in the south.
8. The Mughal Empire
Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the first Battle of Panipat on 21 April 1526, which began the Mughal Empire, and he won the Battle of Khanwa against the Rajputs in 1527. Humayun, who succeeded him in 1530, lost the kingdom to Sher Shah Suri, who ruled in the 1540s with a notable system of roads and revenue administration, and Humayun regained Delhi in 1555 before dying in 1556.
| Emperor | Reign | Key events |
|---|---|---|
| Babur | 1526 to 1530 | Panipat (1526), Khanwa (1527) |
| Humayun | 1530 to 1556 | Lost to Sher Shah; returned 1555 |
| Akbar | 1556 to 1605 | Second Panipat (5 November 1556); mansabdari; Din-i-Ilahi (1582); Ain-i-Akbari |
| Jahangir | 1605 to 1627 | Nur Jahan's influence; married her in 1611 |
| Shah Jahan | 1628 to 1658 | Taj Mahal; Red Fort at Delhi |
| Aurangzeb | 1658 to 1707 | Long Deccan campaigns |
Akbar is the most examined Mughal. His administrative system included the mansabdari ranks, which tied a rank to a number of soldiers and a salary, and the land-revenue system associated with Raja Todar Mal. The Ain-i-Akbari, compiled by his minister Abu'l Fazl, is the great administrative record, and NCERT uses it extensively as a source. Akbar's policy of religious tolerance is usually dated by the abolition of the pilgrim tax and the jizya in the 1560s, and the Din-i-Ilahi, a small eclectic circle, is dated to 1582.
The decline after Aurangzeb is explained by the long wars, the fiscal and jagirdari crisis, regional powers and the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739, who took Delhi and carried away the Peacock Throne. The Maratha power under Shivaji, who was crowned in 1674, is the major regional challenger of the late seventeenth century. The third Battle of Panipat in 1761 saw the Marathas defeated by Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Mughal emperor remained as a symbol until 1857.
9. European arrival and the establishment of Company rule
The sea route to India was opened by Vasco da Gama, who reached Calicut in 1498. The Portuguese captured Goa in 1510 under Albuquerque and built a trading network along the coast. The Dutch followed with their East India Company in 1602 and the English East India Company received its charter on 31 December 1600. English trading stations (factories) were set up at places such as Surat early in the seventeenth century and later at Madras and Calcutta. Along the Andhra coast, the ports of Masulipatnam and Armagon drew European traders, which is why Dutch, French and English questions often have Andhra links. The French established Pondicherry in the late seventeenth century, and the Danes also had small settlements.
The Anglo-French rivalry for southern India produced the Carnatic Wars in the mid-eighteenth century, with the French position collapsing after the Third Carnatic War and the Treaty of Paris of 1763. In the east the key events run in a clear order.
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1756 | Black Hole incident in Calcutta (21 June) |
| 1757 | Battle of Plassey (23 June): Robert Clive and Mir Jafar defeat Siraj ud-Daulah |
| 1764 | Battle of Buxar (22 October) |
| 1765 | The Mughal emperor grants the Company the diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (12 August) |
Plassey is described in reference works as the de facto beginning of Company rule, and Buxar and the diwani confirmed it, because the Company became the chief financial administrator. The next hundred years show a steady growth of control by war and treaty: the Mysore Wars against Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, ending with Tipu's death in 1799; the Anglo-Maratha Wars; the conquest of Punjab after the Anglo-Sikh Wars; and the system of Subsidiary Alliance, which Governor-General Wellesley used from 1798 (Awadh accepted a subsidiary alliance in 1801), and the Doctrine of Lapse used by Dalhousie, who announced in 1849 that on the death of a ruler without a natural heir the territory could pass to the Company. Awadh itself was annexed in 1856, which became one of the grievances of 1857.
Land revenue systems are a standing exam topic. The Permanent Settlement was introduced in Bengal by Cornwallis in 1793, fixing the revenue demand and treating the zamindar as the owner who paid it. NCERT dates it to 1793. The Ryotwari system, with direct settlement with the cultivator, and the Mahalwari system in parts of the north followed in other regions. Before the 1860s these systems brought heavy burdens and frequent crises for peasants, which led to revolts such as the Santhal Revolt of 1855 to 1856 and the Deccan riots of 1875.
10. Constitutional and administrative acts
Acts of the British Parliament are easy marks if you keep them in a table and learn the one-line effect.
| Act | Year | Main effect |
|---|---|---|
| Regulating Act | 1773 | First step to regulate the Company; Governor-General of Bengal; a Supreme Court at Calcutta |
| Pitt's India Act | 1784 | Board of Control over the Company's political affairs |
| Charter Act | 1813 | Ended the Company's monopoly of Indian trade except tea and China trade |
| Charter Act | 1833 | Company became a purely administrative body; Governor-General of India; Bentinck the first holder of that title; first Law Commission |
| Charter Act | 1853 | Open competition for civil services was introduced in principle |
| Government of India Act | 1858 | Crown took over from the Company; Secretary of State and Viceroy |
| Indian Councils Act | 1861 | Indians nominated to the legislative council; portfolio system |
| Indian Councils Act | 1892 | Indirect election and right to ask questions |
| Indian Councils Act | 1909 | Morley-Minto reforms; separate electorates for Muslims |
| Government of India Act | 1919 | Diarchy in the provinces (Montagu-Chelmsford reforms) |
| Government of India Act | 1935 | Provincial autonomy; a federation that never began; Federal Court; Reserve Bank |
| Indian Independence Act | 1947 | Two dominions; royal assent 18 July 1947; in force 15 August 1947 |
For the 1833 Act the reference material confirms the Governor-General of India title and Bentinck's role, and for 1935 it confirms that the federal part never came into force because the princely states did not join, with only the provincial provisions taking effect in 1937. For the earlier Acts, the one-line effects given here are the standard textbook summaries.
11. Social reform and the revolt of 1857
The nineteenth century is also the age of reform movements. In Bengal, Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 and campaigned against sati, which was outlawed in 1829 under Bentinck. Swami Dayananda founded the Arya Samaj in 1875, Jyotirao Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873, and the Ramakrishna Mission followed in 1897. Education spread through English-medium schools after the 1830s and the universities of 1857. The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856 was a landmark. The Andhra contributions, such as those of Kandukuri Veeresalingam, are in the freedom struggle and social reform post.
The revolt of 1857 was the largest challenge to Company rule. NCERT records that Mangal Pandey was hanged on 8 April 1857 at Barrackpore for attacking his officers, and that on 10 May 1857 the sepoys at Meerut rose in revolt and went on to Delhi, where they declared the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar their leader. The causes were many: the Enfield rifle cartridge rumours, the annexation of Awadh in 1856, the Doctrine of Lapse, the land-revenue burden, and religious and social anxieties about reforms. Leaders included Nana Sahib, Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh of Arrah and Begum Hazrat Mahal at Lucknow. Delhi was retaken by the British in September 1857, Lucknow in March 1858, Rani Lakshmibai died in June 1858, and Tantia Tope was captured and killed in April 1859. Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried and sent to Rangoon, where he died in November 1862.
The consequence was the Government of India Act 1858 and the Queen's Proclamation of November 1858, which ended Company rule, promised not to annex states further and promised equal treatment of subjects. NCERT calls this the start of a new phase of history.
12. The Congress and the national movement in phases
The Indian National Congress was founded at Bombay in December 1885. The early phase, from 1885 to about 1905, is called the Moderate phase, with leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who relied on petitions, prayers and constitutional agitation, and who offered the "drain of wealth" analysis of colonial economics.
The second phase begins with Viceroy Curzon's partition of Bengal in 1905, which provoked the Swadeshi and boycott movement. The Muslim League was formed at Dacca in 1906, the Congress split at Surat in 1907 between Moderates and Extremists (the radical leaders included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, "Lal-Bal-Pal"), and the Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 introduced separate electorates. The two groups of the Congress reunited in December 1915. The partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911, and the capital was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in the same year. The Lucknow Pact of 1916 brought the Congress and the League together, and the Home Rule Leagues of 1916 were led by Tilak and Annie Besant.
The third phase is the Gandhian era, from 1915 when Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa, to 1947.
13. Gandhian movements and the road to independence
| Year | Movement or event | Key point |
|---|---|---|
| 1917 | Champaran | First satyagraha in India, on indigo cultivators |
| 1918 | Kheda and Ahmedabad | Peasant and mill-worker struggles |
| 1919 | Rowlatt Satyagraha; Jallianwala Bagh (April) | Protest against the Rowlatt Act; massacre at Amritsar |
| 1920 to 1922 | Non-Cooperation and Khilafat | Boycott of schools, courts and councils; ended after Chauri Chaura (February 1922) |
| 1928 | Bardoli; Simon Commission boycott | Peasant struggle; protests against an all-white commission |
| 1929 | Lahore Congress (December) | Purna Swaraj accepted as the goal |
| 1930 | Civil Disobedience; Dandi March | 12 March to 6 April 1930 |
| 1931 | Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March); Second Round Table Conference | Truce; Gandhi in London |
| 1932 | Communal Award; Poona Pact (24 September) | Joint electorates with reserved seats |
| 1935 | Government of India Act | Provincial autonomy |
| 1939 | Congress ministries resign | After the war began |
| 1942 | Quit India (8 August) | "Do or Die" |
A few of these need more detail because questions go beyond the date.
Salt March. Gandhi left Sabarmati Ashram near Ahmedabad on 12 March 1930 with 78 volunteers and reached Dandi on 6 April, where he broke the salt law, a march of about 387 kilometres. The Civil Disobedience Movement followed.
Poona Pact. The Communal Award of August 1932 had given separate electorates to the depressed classes. Gandhi, imprisoned in Yerwada, began a fast against it, and the Poona Pact of 24 September 1932 between leaders including B. R. Ambedkar and Madan Mohan Malaviya replaced separate electorates by reserved seats in joint electorates, with more reserved seats than the Award had offered.
Quit India. The resolution was passed at the Congress session in Bombay on 8 August 1942, and the main leaders were arrested within hours, after which leaders such as Aruna Asaf Ali led an underground movement. It was preceded by the Cripps Mission of March 1942, which failed to satisfy the Congress.
Other currents. Revolutionary activity continued: the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was formed in 1928 at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi, and Bhagat Singh and his comrades are remembered for 1928 and 1929 actions in Lahore and Delhi. Subhas Chandra Bose left Calcutta in January 1941 and organised the Indian National Army, which tried to enter India through Imphal in 1944. The Muslim League's Lahore resolution of 1940 asked for "States" for Muslims in the north-western and eastern zones, which is usually described as the start of the Pakistan demand.
14. Independence and Partition, 1945 to 1950
The decisive sequence, using the NCERT timeline, is short and fixed.
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| 26 July 1945 | Labour Government comes to power in Britain |
| 16 May 1946 | Cabinet Mission announces its constitutional scheme |
| 16 August 1946 | Muslim League announces Direct Action Day |
| 2 September 1946 | Interim Government formed, with Nehru as Vice-President of the Executive Council |
| 9 December 1946 | Constituent Assembly begins its sessions |
| 3 June 1947 | Mountbatten Plan for partition (as per standard accounts) |
| 18 July 1947 | Royal assent to the Indian Independence Act |
| 14 August 1947 | Pakistan Independence |
| 14 to 15 August 1947 | India celebrates Independence at midnight |
| 26 November 1949 | Constitution adopted |
| 26 January 1950 | Constitution comes into force |
The Indian Independence Act created two dominions, India and Pakistan, with a Governor-General for each, made each Constituent Assembly a sovereign legislature, and ended British suzerainty over the princely states, which could choose to join either dominion. Bengal and Punjab were divided by a boundary commission. Partition was accompanied by large-scale violence and displacement, which NCERT treats at length. Mahatma Gandhi visited Noakhali and other riot-torn areas in 1946 to stop the violence, and after Independence the integration of the princely states proceeded, the case of Hyderabad being the most relevant for Telugu readers; the reasons and the later linguistic reorganisation that produced Andhra State and then Andhra Pradesh are in the formation history post.
15. Commissions, committees and missions
| Name | Year | Subject |
|---|---|---|
| Wood's Despatch | 1854 | Education policy; universities and a department of education |
| Hunter Commission | 1882 | Education, especially primary |
| Lee Commission | 1923 to 1924 | Civil services |
| Butler Committee | 1927 | Relations with the princely states |
| Simon Commission | 1927 to 1930 | Constitutional review; boycotted because it had no Indian member |
| Nehru Report | 1928 | An Indian proposal for a constitution |
| Cripps Mission | March 1942 | Offer for post-war dominion status; rejected |
| Cabinet Mission | 1946 | Three-member British mission; constitutional scheme of 16 May |
These are usually asked as "which commission looked at X". Learn the keyword for each, such as "education" for Wood and Hunter and "no Indian member" for Simon.
16. How to use these notes in a week
- Day 1. The anchor dates and the Indus Valley.
- Day 2. Vedic ages, Mahajanapadas, Mauryas.
- Day 3. Post-Mauryan kingdoms, Guptas, Harsha.
- Day 4. Delhi Sultanate and Mughals, with both tables from memory.
- Day 5. Europeans, Plassey to the Doctrine of Lapse, revenue systems.
- Day 6. Acts, 1857, reformers, the Congress phases.
- Day 7. Gandhian movements, Independence, then ten MCQs without notes.
Add one Andhra post per day if your exam is an AP paper, because the state-specific questions reward the same habit of keywords and sequence.
17. Common exam traps
- Mixing BCE order. 321 BCE (Mauryan beginning) comes before 261 BCE (the Kalinga war).
- Harappan sites. Dholavira (water reservoirs) versus Lothal (dockyard).
- Panipat. First 1526 (Babur), second 1556 (Akbar), third 1761 (Marathas and Abdali).
- Plassey versus Buxar. 1757 versus 1764; the diwani is 1765.
- Permanent Settlement. 1793, Bengal, Cornwallis.
- Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance. Lapse is Dalhousie; Subsidiary Alliance is Wellesley.
- 1857. It began at Meerut on 10 May 1857, not in Delhi, and Mangal Pandey's hanging (8 April) predates it.
- Indian Councils Act 1909. Separate electorates, not diarchy.
- Gandhi-Irwin Pact versus Poona Pact. 1931 versus 1932.
- Adoption and independence. Independence on 15 August 1947; the Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950.
Key facts for exams
- Harappan civilisation, NCERT dates: Early c. 6000 to 2600 BCE, Mature c. 2600 to 1900 BCE, Late c. 1900 to 1300 BCE.
- Mauryan Empire founded about 321 BCE (NCERT); Kalinga war about 261 BCE; end about 185 BCE.
- Gupta rulers: Chandragupta I c. 319, Samudragupta c. 335, Chandragupta II c. 375 to 415, Kumaragupta c. 415 to 455, Skandagupta c. 455 to 467 CE.
- Delhi Sultanate: 1206 to 1526; Second Tarain 1192; Timur's sack of Delhi 1398.
- Mughals: Panipat 21 April 1526; Second Panipat 5 November 1556; Akbar 1556 to 1605; Aurangzeb died 1707; Nadir Shah 1739.
- Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498; English East India Company chartered on 31 December 1600.
- Plassey 23 June 1757; Buxar 22 October 1764; diwani granted 12 August 1765.
- Permanent Settlement 1793; Tipu Sultan died 1799.
- Revolt of 1857: Mangal Pandey hanged 8 April; Meerut 10 May; Delhi retaken September 1857.
- INC founded December 1885 at Bombay; Partition of Bengal 1905; Muslim League 1906; Surat split 1907.
- Gandhi returned 1915; Champaran 1917; Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh 1919; Non-Cooperation 1920 to 1922.
- Lahore Congress December 1929 (Purna Swaraj); Dandi March 12 March to 6 April 1930; Poona Pact 24 September 1932.
- Quit India 8 August 1942; Constituent Assembly first met 9 December 1946.
- Indian Independence Act: assent 18 July 1947; Independence 15 August 1947; Constitution in force 26 January 1950.
10 practice MCQs
1. According to NCERT, the Mature Harappan phase is dated to about: a) 6000 to 2600 BCE b) 2600 to 1900 BCE c) 1900 to 1300 BCE d) 1500 to 1000 BCE Answer: b.
2. Which Harappan site is known for its dockyard? a) Dholavira b) Kalibangan c) Lothal d) Harappa Answer: c.
3. The Mauryan emperor Ashoka turned to dhamma after which war? a) Panipat b) Kalinga c) Tarain d) Buxar Answer: b.
4. Which Gupta ruler's conquests are listed in the Allahabad Pillar inscription? a) Chandragupta I b) Samudragupta c) Skandagupta d) Kumaragupta I Answer: b.
5. Who was the first woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate? a) Nur Jahan b) Raziyya c) Chand Bibi d) Mumtaz Mahal Answer: b.
6. The Second Battle of Panipat was fought in: a) 1526 b) 1556 c) 1761 d) 1757 Answer: b.
7. The Permanent Settlement was introduced in Bengal in: a) 1773 b) 1793 c) 1813 d) 1833 Answer: b.
8. The Revolt of 1857 began at: a) Delhi b) Kanpur c) Meerut d) Jhansi Answer: c.
9. The Poona Pact was signed in: a) 1930 b) 1931 c) 1932 d) 1935 Answer: c.
10. The Indian Independence Act received royal assent on: a) 3 June 1947 b) 18 July 1947 c) 15 August 1947 d) 26 January 1950 Answer: b.
Frequently asked questions
Which history topics matter most for APPSC and AP Police papers? The Indus Valley, Mauryas, Guptas, Delhi Sultanate, Mughals, European arrival, 1857, the Congress phases and Gandhian movements carry the most questions. The state-specific posts on Satavahanas, Kakatiyas, Vijayanagara and the Andhra movement add the Andhra layer.
Are the dates in this guide the same as in older books? Mostly, but some early dates differ by source. The guide follows NCERT where it gives a date and marks approximate dates with "c.".
How should I learn the long list of Acts? Use the table and learn one effect per Act, for example "1858: Crown rule" and "1909: separate electorates". Revise the table every few days instead of reading it once.
Why does the guide say the Kushana dating is traditional? Historians disagree on the year in which Kanishka began to rule, so the Shaka era of 78 CE is linked to him by tradition and not by settled evidence.
What is the difference between the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and the Poona Pact? The Gandhi-Irwin Pact of March 1931 was a truce during the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Poona Pact of 24 September 1932 settled representation of the depressed classes after the Communal Award.
Where do I find Andhra Pradesh history facts? In the four AP history posts linked in the introduction. They are not repeated here so that each post stays accurate in one place.
How much of this is time-sensitive? None of the dates, but exam patterns and syllabus lists change, so check the latest notification of your recruitment board.
Related reading
- AP ancient history: Satavahanas to Eastern Chalukyas
- AP medieval history: Kakatiyas to Vijayanagara and Qutb Shahis
- Freedom struggle and social reform in Andhra
- Formation of Andhra Pradesh: Andhra movement to 1956 and 2014
- Indian polity and Constitution notes for APPSC, DSC and AP Police
- Telugu version of this post
Practise on pareeksha.in
After one pass through these timelines, attempt a timed history set on pareeksha.in and review every miss against the table it came from. The platform offers 10 Lakh+ MCQs, 100+ Exams and 5,000+ Full-Length Mocks. For exam pattern and syllabus details, check the latest official notification.
Sources and verification
Pages opened for this revision:
- NCERT, Themes in Indian History, Class 12: Theme One (The Harappan Civilisation), Theme Two (Kings, Farmers and Towns), Theme Five (Through the Eyes of Travellers), Theme Six (Bhakti-Sufi Traditions), Theme Eight (Peasants, Zamindars and the State), and the chapters on Colonialism and the Countryside, Rebels and the Raj, Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement, and Framing the Constitution.
- NCERT, Our Pasts II (Class 7), the chapters on the Delhi Sultans and the Mughals; NCERT, Our Pasts III (Class 8), the chapters When People Revolt (1857 and After) and The Making of the National Movement.
- Wikipedia pages on the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, the Gupta Empire, the Maurya Empire, the Battle of Plassey, the Salt March, the Quit India Movement, the Poona Pact, the Government of India Act 1935, the Charter Act 1833 and the Indian Independence Act 1947 (cross-check only).
Not verified in an opened source and hedged in the text: the Vedic-age dating; the Buddha and Mahavira dates (given as sixth to fifth century BCE); the Kushana and Shaka era link; Harsha's reign and Xuanzang's visit (stated only as the first half of the seventh century); the Chola dates; the exact year of Akbar's abolition of the pilgrim tax and jizya (given as the 1560s); the 3 June 1947 plan date (taken from the reference summary, not opened in a primary source); the one-line effects of the Acts before 1833 and between 1853 and 1919; the commission years in the table apart from the Cripps and Cabinet Missions; the European arrival dates (1498, 1510, 1600, 1602 and the Pondicherry settlement), the Carnatic Wars and the Treaty of Paris, the Mysore and Maratha war details, the Shivaji and Third Panipat years, Begum Hazrat Mahal's role, and the Andhra ports and factory details (see the AP posts). These are standard textbook facts that were not opened in a primary source for this revision. Britannica pages were not accessible during this revision.
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