Prehistoric Cultures, Indus and Vedic Age

What to remember

• Stone Age tools show the move from hunting and gathering (Palaeolithic) to farming and herding (Neolithic); metal use begins with copper (Chalcolithic).
• The Indus (Harappan) civilisation was an urban, trading, planned-city culture with no clear temples or weapons-based kingship; its script is not deciphered.
• Early Vedic society was pastoral and tribal (Rigveda); Later Vedic society was agrarian, with kingdoms, rituals and the four varnas becoming rigid.

Prehistoric cultures

Prehistory means the time before written records. It is studied through tools, bones, paintings and burials. The main stages are listed below.

Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age). People lived by hunting and gathering. They used rough, chipped stone tools: hand-axes, cleavers, choppers, flakes and scrapers. They lived in caves and rock shelters near water. Fire was known. The age is divided into Lower, Middle and Upper phases by tool type. Upper Palaeolithic tools are smaller blades and burins, and bone tools appear. Important sites: Attirampakkam near Chennai, Hunsgi in Karnataka, Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, and the Belum caves and Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh. The Kurnool region is well known for Palaeolithic tools and bone remains.

Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age). The climate became warmer after the ice age. Tools became very small (microliths), fixed on wood or bone handles to make arrows and sickles. People hunted, fished and collected food, and began to keep animals. Rock paintings of hunting, dance and daily life are common, for example at Bhimbetka. Important sites: Bagor in Rajasthan, Sarai Nahar Rai and Mahadaha in the Ganga plain, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh.

Neolithic (New Stone Age). People began farming, made polished stone axes, and lived in villages. They made pottery by hand and later on the wheel. They grew wheat, barley and later rice and millets and kept cattle, sheep and goats. Important sites: Mehrgarh (in Baluchistan, the earliest farming village in South Asia), Burzahom and Gufkral in Kashmir (pit dwellings, burial of dogs with owners), Chirand in Bihar (bone tools), Koldihwa in Uttar Pradesh (early rice), Piklihal, Maski, Brahmagiri and Sangankallu in the Deccan. Neolithic ash mounds in the Deccan show cattle-herding communities.

Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone Age). Copper was used together with stone. Villages were small and farming was based on the black soil and river valleys. People made painted pottery and used copper tools. Important cultures: Ahar (Rajasthan), Kayatha and Malwa (Madhya Pradesh), Jorwe (Maharashtra), Prabhas and Rangpur (Gujarat). Inamgaon in Maharashtra is a large Jorwe site with house plans, a granary and burials of children under house floors. These people did not know iron and did not make cities.

Indus (Harappan) civilisation

Name and time. It is also called the Harappan civilisation, because Harappa was the first site found. It belongs to the Bronze Age. Its mature phase is c. 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Its area is larger than that of Egypt or Mesopotamia of the time and stretched from Baluchistan to western Uttar Pradesh, and from Jammu to Maharashtra. Harappa was found by Daya Ram Sahni (1921) and Mohenjodaro by R. D. Banerji (1922). Excavation was led by John Marshall as Director General of the Archaeological Survey.

Major sites and their features

Town planning. Most cities have two parts: a raised western citadel for important buildings, and a larger lower town for ordinary houses. Streets crossed at right angles in a grid. Houses were built of standard baked bricks (ratio 1:2:4). Almost every house had a bathroom and well. Covered drains ran along the streets with inspection holes. This shows a strong civic authority. Dholavira had three parts and a very careful water system.

Economy. Agriculture was the base: wheat, barley, peas, sesame, mustard and dates; cotton was grown first by these people. Rice is found at Lothal and Rangpur. Animals: humped bull, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, dog. The horse is not clearly known. Crafts included bead making (carnelian), bronze work, pottery, shell work, terracotta toys and seal cutting. Trade was internal and with Mesopotamia (called Meluhha in Mesopotamian texts), Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan (Oman). Goods were exchanged by barter, not coins. Copper came from Khetri in Rajasthan, tin from Afghanistan, lapis lazuli from Badakhshan, and gold from Karnataka. Standard weights were in the ratio of 16 and its multiples. Cylindrical Mesopotamian seals and Harappan seals found in each other's land prove contact.

Society and religion. There is no sign of a powerful king, palace or large temple. Seals show a horned figure in a yogic posture (called "proto-Shiva" by scholars), the humped bull, the unicorn and the pipal tree. Mother-goddess terracotta figurines suggest worship of fertility. Fire altars at Kalibangan and Lothal suggest rituals. Dead were buried, usually with pots; cremation was less common. The "Dancing Girl" is a small bronze figure made by the lost-wax method.

Script. Written on seals in a pictographic script of about 400 signs, usually read right to left. It is not deciphered. Seals were mostly steatite.

Decline. There is no single agreed cause. Suggested causes: change in climate and drying of rivers (the Ghaggar-Hakra), floods, decline of trade with Mesopotamia, and shifting rivers. Late Harappan villages continued in many areas.

Vedic age

Early Vedic (Rigvedic) period, c. 1500 to 1000 BCE. The main source is the Rigveda, with 10 books (mandalas) and about 1,000 hymns. Books 2 to 7 are the oldest "family books". The people lived mostly in the Sapta Sindhu region (Punjab). The Sarasvati was the most sacred river. The Aryans were pastoral. Cattle were wealth, and the word for war ("gavishti") means search for cows. Tribal units: kula (family), grama (village), vis (clan), jana (tribe). The tribal chief was the rajan, helped by the purohita (priest) and the senani (army head). Tribal assemblies were the sabha and the samiti. Another body, the vidatha, was the earliest. The Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna) on the Parushni (Ravi) was won by Sudas of the Bharata tribe.

Society was tribal and mostly equal, with a division of work. The Purusha Sukta in the tenth book mentions the four varnas for the first time; it is a late addition. Women had a good position: Lopamudra, Apala, Ghosha and Vishvavara are mentioned (Gargi belongs to the later Upanishadic age). Gods were natural forces: Indra (rain and war, the most important), Agni (fire), Varuna (cosmic order), Soma, Surya, Ushas and Maruts. Worship was by hymns and offerings, with no temples or idols.

Later Vedic period, c. 1000 to 600 BCE. The sources are the Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. The centre moved east to the Ganga-Yamuna doab. Iron (called syama or krishna ayas) came into use and made forest clearing and farming easier. Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is the typical pottery. Farming became the main occupation; rice (vrihi) and wheat were grown. Important kingdoms: Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Kashi, Videha. Large kingdoms replaced tribes. Kings performed big sacrifices such as the Rajasuya, Ashvamedha and Vajapeya to show power. The sabha and samiti lost importance and the vidatha disappeared. Taxes (bali) became regular. Land was not private; a king's right grew.

Society was divided into four varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra. Gotra came into use and the ashrama system (brahmacharya, grihastha, vanaprastha; the fourth, sanyasa, came later) was formed. Women lost some status. Gods changed: Prajapati (the creator), Vishnu and Rudra became important, while Indra and Agni lost rank. Rituals became complex and costly. The Upanishads opposed rituals and taught atman and Brahman, karma and moksha.

Early and Later Vedic compared

Exam traps

• Harappa (R. Ravi, Punjab) versus Mohenjodaro (R. Indus, Sindh): the Great Bath is at Mohenjodaro, granaries at Harappa.
• Lothal has the dockyard; Dholavira has the water reservoirs; Kalibangan has the ploughed field.
• Mehrgarh is Neolithic (earliest farming), not Harappan mature phase.
• Microliths belong to the Mesolithic; polished axes to the Neolithic.
• Chalcolithic means copper with stone, not copper replacing stone.
• The Rigveda is Early Vedic; the Atharvaveda and Brahmanas are Later Vedic.
• The Purusha Sukta (four varnas) is in the tenth book, a later part.
• Indra is the main god of the Early Vedic age; Prajapati rises later.
• Iron is Later Vedic; Early Vedic age is usually described with copper.
• Harappans knew cotton and bronze but not iron, and the horse is not clearly part of their life.

One-liners

• Mehrgarh is the earliest known farming site of South Asia.
• Bhimbetka is famous for Mesolithic rock paintings.
• Inamgaon is a Jorwe culture site of the Chalcolithic age.
• Harappa was first reported by Daya Ram Sahni.
• Harappan seals are mostly of steatite.
• The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro was a large water tank for ritual bathing.
• The Harappan weight system was based on multiples of 16.
• Lothal is known for its dockyard.
• The Harappan script is still not deciphered.
• The Sabha and Samiti were Vedic assemblies.
• Gayatri mantra is in the Rigveda and is addressed to Savitri.
• The Upanishads teach the unity of atman and Brahman.

Practice questions

1. Which Stone Age is marked by tiny stone tools called microliths?

   1. Chalcolithic
   2. Neolithic
   3. Mesolithic
   4. Palaeolithic
   Answer

   C. Mesolithic

   Microliths are small blade tools typical of the Mesolithic.

2. Which site is regarded as the earliest farming village of South Asia?

   1. Burzahom
   2. Inamgaon
   3. Chirand
   4. Mehrgarh
   Answer

   D. Mehrgarh

   Mehrgarh in Baluchistan shows the earliest farming and herding.

3. The Great Bath is found at which Harappan site?

   1. Harappa
   2. Mohenjodaro
   3. Lothal
   4. Kalibangan
   Answer

   B. Mohenjodaro

   The Great Bath is a ritual tank on the Mohenjodaro citadel.

4. Which Harappan site is known for its dockyard?

   1. Lothal
   2. Chanhudaro
   3. Ropar
   4. Dholavira
   Answer

   A. Lothal

   Lothal in Gujarat had a brick dockyard for trade.

5. Who first reported the discovery of Harappa in 1921?

   1. R. D. Banerji
   2. Daya Ram Sahni
   3. John Marshall
   4. Alexander Cunningham
   Answer

   B. Daya Ram Sahni

   Daya Ram Sahni reported Harappa; Banerji reported Mohenjodaro.

6. The Chalcolithic stage is characterised by the use of

   1. copper with stone
   2. polished stone only
   3. bronze only
   4. iron with stone
   Answer

   A. copper with stone

   Chalcolithic means copper-stone age.

7. Which is the oldest Veda?

   1. Atharvaveda
   2. Yajurveda
   3. Rigveda
   4. Samaveda
   Answer

   C. Rigveda

   The Rigveda is the oldest of the four Vedas.

8. The Early Vedic people mainly lived in which region?

   1. Lower Ganga delta
   2. Deccan plateau
   3. Coastal Andhra
   4. Sapta Sindhu
   Answer

   D. Sapta Sindhu

   Sapta Sindhu is the land of seven rivers in the Punjab region.

9. Which Harappan site is known for its large water reservoirs and three-part city plan?

   1. Banawali
   2. Surkotada
   3. Dholavira
   4. Rakhigarhi
   Answer

   C. Dholavira

   Dholavira in Kutch had a very careful water system.

10. The Harappan script is

    1. not yet deciphered
    2. a copy of the Brahmi script
    3. read left to right and deciphered
    4. read and fully deciphered
    Answer

    A. not yet deciphered

    The Indus script is still undeciphered.

11. Which assemblies are mentioned in the Vedic age?

    1. Mahasabha and Ur
    2. Sabha and Samiti
    3. Sangha and Gana
    4. Nagaram and Nadu
    Answer

    B. Sabha and Samiti

    Sabha and Samiti were the tribal assemblies.

12. Who was the chief god of the Early Vedic age?

    1. Vishnu
    2. Rudra
    3. Prajapati
    4. Indra
    Answer

    D. Indra

    Indra, god of rain and war, was the most important Rigvedic god.

13. Which site is famous for Mesolithic rock paintings?

    1. Mehrgarh
    2. Chirand
    3. Bhimbetka
    4. Lothal
    Answer

    C. Bhimbetka

    Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh has many hunting and dance paintings.

14. Painted Grey Ware is associated with which period?

    1. Later Vedic
    2. Early Harappan
    3. Mauryan
    4. Gupta
    Answer

    A. Later Vedic

    PGW is typical pottery of the Later Vedic period in the upper Ganga basin.

15. Which of the following Harappan cities had no citadel and was a bead-making centre?

    1. Dholavira
    2. Harappa
    3. Mohenjodaro
    4. Chanhudaro
    Answer

    D. Chanhudaro

    Chanhudaro in Sindh is known for bead making and lacked a citadel.

16. Harappan trade with Mesopotamia is shown by the Mesopotamian name

    1. Mahishmati
    2. Meluhha
    3. Magadha
    4. Malwa
    Answer

    B. Meluhha

    Mesopotamian texts call the Indus region Meluhha.

17. The Harappan town plan is best described as

    1. a raised citadel and a lower town in a grid
    2. a single walled palace complex
    3. round forts on hills
    4. scattered huts around a temple
    Answer

    A. a raised citadel and a lower town in a grid

    Cities had a citadel and a lower town with streets at right angles.

18. Cotton was first grown by people of which culture?

    1. Mesolithic
    2. Palaeolithic
    3. Early Vedic
    4. Harappan
    Answer

    D. Harappan

    Harappans are the earliest known cotton growers in the region.

19. Which of the following was a standard feature of Harappan houses?

    1. Wooden temples
    2. Stone palaces
    3. Covered drains and baths
    4. Iron tools
    Answer

    C. Covered drains and baths

    Houses had bathrooms and drains linked to street drains.

20. Which Chalcolithic site in Maharashtra has house plans, a granary and child burials under floors?

    1. Bagor
    2. Inamgaon
    3. Ahar
    4. Rangpur
    Answer

    B. Inamgaon

    Inamgaon is a Jorwe culture site of the Deccan.

21. The Battle of Ten Kings was won by

    1. Ashvapati
    2. Janaka
    3. Divodasa
    4. Sudas
    Answer

    D. Sudas

    Sudas of the Bharata tribe defeated the confederacy on the Parushni.

22. Which of the following is a feature of the Later Vedic period but not of the Early Vedic?

    1. Cattle herding
    2. Worship of Indra
    3. Use of iron
    4. Tribal chief
    Answer

    C. Use of iron

    Iron (krishna ayas) came into use in the Later Vedic phase.

23. The word "gavishti" in the Rigveda means

    1. search for cows
    2. prayer to fire
    3. tax in kind
    4. assembly of elders
    Answer

    A. search for cows

    It was used for war, showing the value of cattle.

24. The four varnas are first mentioned in which hymn?

    1. Nasadiya Sukta
    2. Purusha Sukta
    3. Gayatri hymn
    4. Soma hymn
    Answer

    B. Purusha Sukta

    The Purusha Sukta of the tenth book names the four varnas.

25. Which Neolithic site in Kashmir shows pit dwellings?

    1. Piklihal
    2. Burzahom
    3. Brahmagiri
    4. Maski
    Answer

    B. Burzahom

    Burzahom had pit dwellings and burials of dogs with owners.

26. Which was the main Harappan source of copper?

    1. Singhbhum
    2. Kolar
    3. Badakhshan
    4. Khetri
    Answer

    D. Khetri

    Copper came mostly from the Khetri area of Rajasthan.

27. Which idea is taught in the Upanishads?

    1. Animal sacrifice for rain
    2. Unity of atman and Brahman
    3. Worship of nature gods only
    4. Rule of tribal assemblies
    Answer

    B. Unity of atman and Brahman

    The Upanishads taught atman, Brahman, karma and moksha.

28. Statements: 1. Harappan cities had large temples and palaces. 2. Harappan seals were mostly made of steatite. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    No clear temples or palaces are found; steatite seals are common.

29. Statements: 1. The Early Vedic society was mainly pastoral. 2. The vidatha was the main assembly in the Later Vedic age. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The vidatha disappeared in the Later Vedic age.

30. Statements: 1. Mehrgarh is a Neolithic site. 2. Bhimbetka is a Harappan city. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Bhimbetka is a rock-shelter site with paintings, not a Harappan city.

31. Statements: 1. Kalibangan had fire altars. 2. Lothal had a ploughed field. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The ploughed field is at Kalibangan; Lothal had the dockyard.

32. Statements: 1. Iron was used by the Harappans. 2. Harappan trade was by barter. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Harappans used bronze and copper, not iron, and had no coins.

33. Match the site with its feature: 1. Harappa 2. Dholavira 3. Chirand 4. Koldihwa. Which pair is correct?

    1. Dholavira - bone tools
    2. Chirand - Harappan seals
    3. Harappa - granaries
    4. Koldihwa - dockyard
    Answer

    C. Harappa - granaries

    Harappa had granaries; Chirand is Neolithic with bone tools; Koldihwa has early rice.

34. Match the pair correctly:

    1. Burzahom - dockyard
    2. Mehrgarh - Great Bath
    3. Koldihwa - early rice
    4. Lothal - pit dwellings
    Answer

    C. Koldihwa - early rice

    Koldihwa in Uttar Pradesh is known for early rice.

35. Which of the following explains why Later Vedic kings performed Rajasuya and Ashvamedha?

    1. To end the varna system
    2. To please tribal assemblies
    3. To start trade with Mesopotamia
    4. To show power over a larger territory
    Answer

    D. To show power over a larger territory

    These large sacrifices raised the king's status over wide kingdoms.

36. The Harappan bronze figure called the Dancing Girl was made by

    1. stone carving
    2. wood moulding
    3. the lost-wax method
    4. hammering iron
    Answer

    C. the lost-wax method

    The lost-wax process was used for the small bronze figure.

37. The Harappan weights followed a ratio based on

    1. 7 only
    2. 10 and its multiples
    3. 16 and its multiples
    4. 12 only
    Answer

    C. 16 and its multiples

    Weights used 16 and its multiples.

38. The Ghaggar-Hakra valley is linked with the Harappan decline mainly through

    1. fall of the Maurya state
    2. drying of the river
    3. Aryan conquest proved by weapons
    4. failure of iron tools
    Answer

    B. drying of the river

    Drying and shifting of rivers is a suggested cause of decline.

39. Which river was the most sacred in the Rigveda?

    1. Godavari
    2. Kaveri
    3. Krishna
    4. Sarasvati
    Answer

    D. Sarasvati

    The Sarasvati is praised as the best of rivers.

40. Which of the following women is mentioned as a Rigvedic poetess?

    1. Draupadi
    2. Sita
    3. Kaikeyi
    4. Lopamudra
    Answer

    D. Lopamudra

    Lopamudra, Apala, Ghosha and Gargi appear in Vedic tradition.

41. Which statement about Palaeolithic tools is correct?

    1. Hand-axes and cleavers are typical
    2. Iron tools are typical
    3. Polished axes are typical
    4. Microliths are typical
    Answer

    A. Hand-axes and cleavers are typical

    Palaeolithic people used rough hand-axes, choppers and cleavers.

42. Which of the following changes happened between the Early and Later Vedic age?

    1. The sabha became stronger
    2. Indra became supreme
    3. Women gained a higher position
    4. Gods like Prajapati and Vishnu rose in importance
    Answer

    D. Gods like Prajapati and Vishnu rose in importance

    Indra and Agni lost rank while Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra rose.

43. Which pair of a site and its mature Harappan feature is correct?

    1. Kalibangan - fire altars
    2. Dholavira - ploughed field
    3. Mohenjodaro - dockyard
    4. Lothal - Great Bath
    Answer

    A. Kalibangan - fire altars

    Fire altars are at Kalibangan.

44. Which of the following was a Later Vedic social development?

    1. Rise of Buddhism
    2. Use of coins in trade
    3. Formation of gotra and ashrama stages
    4. Writing of Sangam poems
    Answer

    C. Formation of gotra and ashrama stages

    Gotra and the ashrama scheme took shape in the Later Vedic age.