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Indian History and Culture — Group-I Mains Depth · Chapter 10

Nationalism 1885-1947 in Three Phases

What to remember

  • The Indian National Congress (1885) passed through three phases: the Moderate phase (1885-1905), the Extremist and revolutionary phase (1905-1919), and the Gandhian phase (1919-1947), each with its own methods and goals.
  • Gandhi turned a movement of the educated few into a mass movement through Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience and Quit India; the Lahore session (1929) set the goal of Purna Swaraj.
  • Andhra took part with the Vandemataram movement, Chirala-Perala, the Rampa rebellion of Alluri Sitarama Raju, the salt satyagraha and later the demand for a separate Andhra state.

1. Background and the Moderate phase (1885-1905)

Before the Congress there were regional bodies such as the Indian Association (1876) of Surendranath Banerjee. The Ilbert Bill controversy (1883) showed the racial attitude of the rulers. The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 at Bombay, with A.O. Hume (a retired British official) as the main organiser and W.C. Bonnerjee as the first president.

The Moderates, such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Pherozeshah Mehta and Surendranath Banerjee, believed in constitutional methods: prayers, petitions, speeches and resolutions. They demanded more Indians in the councils and services, and criticised the drain of wealth. Their work led to the Indian Councils Act, 1892, which allowed indirect election and a right to discuss the budget. Their faith in British justice weakened when little was achieved, and the young leaders called their method "political mendicancy".

2. Extremist phase and the Swadeshi movement (1905-1919)

Extremist leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal); also Aurobindo Ghose. Tilak's slogan was "Swaraj is my birthright".

Partition of Bengal (1905). Lord Curzon divided Bengal, which came into effect on 16 October 1905. The reply was the Swadeshi and Boycott movement: boycott of foreign goods, national schools and colleges, Indian industries and the use of festivals for politics. In Andhra the Vandemataram movement spread from Rajahmundry and Kakinada in 1906-07; Bipin Chandra Pal's lecture tour inspired it.

Surat split (1907). The Congress split into the Moderates and Extremists over the use of boycott and swaraj; the Moderates held control.

Government response. The Morley-Minto reforms (Indian Councils Act, 1909) brought separate electorates for Muslims. The Muslim League was formed in 1906 at Dacca. The partition of Bengal was annulled and the capital moved to Delhi in 1911. Revolutionary groups (Anushilan Samiti, Ghadar Party in 1913) used violence.

Home Rule Leagues (1916). Tilak started his league at Poona (April 1916) and Annie Besant at Madras (September 1916). They demanded self-government within the Empire. The Lucknow Pact (1916) brought the Congress and the Muslim League together. The Montagu Declaration (August 1917) promised "responsible government" by stages; the Government of India Act, 1919 introduced dyarchy in the provinces.

PhaseYearsLeadersMethodAim
Moderate1885-1905Naoroji, Gokhale, MehtaPetitions, resolutionsReforms in the system
Extremist1905-1919Lal-Bal-PalBoycott, Swadeshi, national educationSwaraj
Gandhian1919-1947Gandhi, Nehru, PatelSatyagraha, mass movementPurna Swaraj, then Independence

3. Gandhian phase (1919-1947)

Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915, led satyagraha in Champaran (1917), Ahmedabad (1918) and Kheda (1918). Against the repressive Rowlatt Act (1919), he called a hartal. On 13 April 1919 General Dyer's troops fired on a crowd at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.

Non-Cooperation and Khilafat (1920-22). Gandhi joined the Khilafat issue with the Congress programme. The Calcutta special session (September 1920) approved the plan, and Nagpur (December 1920) confirmed it. People gave up titles, boycotted courts, schools and foreign cloth, and took to the charkha. The movement was withdrawn after the violence at Chauri Chaura (February 1922). After it, the Swaraj Party (1923) of C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru entered the councils to oppose from inside.

Simon Commission (1927-28). It had no Indian member and was boycotted with the slogan "Simon Go Back". Lala Lajpat Rai was injured in a lathi charge at Lahore and died soon after. In Madras, Tanguturi Prakasam walked forward to the police and bared his chest in protest. The Nehru Report (1928) was an Indian draft constitution. Jinnah's Fourteen Points (1929) answered it.

Purna Swaraj and Civil Disobedience (1929-34). At the Lahore session (December 1929) under Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress declared complete independence as its goal, and 26 January 1930 was marked as Independence Day. The Dandi March began on 12 March 1930 with 78 followers from Sabarmati and ended with the breaking of the salt law on 6 April 1930. In Andhra, salt satyagraha camps were held at places such as Sitanagaram near Rajahmundry and on the coast. The government replied with repression. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) suspended the movement; Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference in London (1931). The Communal Award (1932) gave separate electorates to the depressed classes; Gandhi's fast led to the Poona Pact (1932), which kept joint electorates with reserved seats.

Government of India Act, 1935 and the elections of 1937. It brought provincial autonomy and a federal plan. The Congress won in most provinces. The ministries resigned in 1939 over India being dragged into the war.

Quit India and after. The Cripps Mission (1942) offered Dominion status after the war and failed. The Quit India Movement began on 8 August 1942 at Gowalia Tank, Bombay, with Gandhi's call "Do or Die". Leaders were arrested the next day, and the people carried on with spontaneous protests; underground leaders such as Aruna Asaf Ali and Jayaprakash Narayan took part. Subhas Chandra Bose formed the Indian National Army (INA) in Southeast Asia, and the INA trials of 1945-46 stirred the country. The Cabinet Mission (1946) proposed a federal plan. After Jinnah's Direct Action Day (16 August 1946), riots followed. The Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) proposed Partition; the Indian Independence Act (July 1947) led to freedom on 15 August 1947.

YearEvent
1917Champaran Satyagraha
1919Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh
1920-22Non-Cooperation, Khilafat
1928Simon Commission boycott
1929Lahore, Purna Swaraj
1930Dandi March
1931Gandhi-Irwin Pact
1932Communal Award, Poona Pact
1942Cripps Mission, Quit India
1946Cabinet Mission
1947Independence and Partition

4. Andhra in the national movement

  • Vandemataram movement (1905-07): Student and public protests at Rajahmundry and Kakinada.
  • Chirala-Perala movement (1919-21): Led by Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya against a municipal tax; the townspeople left their homes and camped outside the town. It was the first mass civil protest of this kind in Andhra.
  • Alluri Sitarama Raju and the Rampa rebellion (1922-24): Tribal people of the Godavari hills rose against forest laws and the police. Raju was called "Manyam Veerudu" and was killed in 1924.
  • Tanguturi Prakasam (Andhra Kesari): Fearless leader of the Simon Commission boycott in Madras; later the first chief minister of the Andhra State (1953).
  • Pattabhi Sitaramayya: Congress leader and author of the History of the Congress; later Congress president (1948).
  • Telangana: Komaram Bheem of the Gond tribe fought the Nizam's rule on the slogan of "water, forest and land" (*jal, jangal, zameen*) in Adilabad.
  • Potti Sriramulu: A Gandhian who fasted for a separate Andhra state and died in December 1952; the Andhra State was formed in October 1953.

5. Why the Gandhian method succeeded

Gandhi's methods were based on truth (*satya*) and non-violence (*ahimsa*). He used symbols such as the charkha, khadi and salt which ordinary people understood. The Congress built a wide organisation of village and town committees, and peasants, workers, students and women took part. Constructive work, such as khadi, removal of untouchability and Hindu-Muslim unity, supported the political programme. The limits of the movement were the rise of communal politics, the weak link with the Muslim League after 1937 and the repression of the government, but the movement put an end to the idea that British rule was accepted by the people.

Exam traps

  • 1. The INC was founded in 1885; Indian Association was earlier (1876).
  • 2. Lahore (1929) declared Purna Swaraj; Karachi (1931) is for fundamental rights.
  • 3. Non-Cooperation was withdrawn after Chauri Chaura (1922); Civil Disobedience was suspended by the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931).
  • 4. Home Rule Leagues: Tilak at Poona, Besant at Madras (both 1916).
  • 5. The Lucknow Pact is Congress-League (1916); the Poona Pact is Gandhi-Ambedkar (1932).
  • 6. The Communal Award gave separate electorates; the Poona Pact replaced them with reserved seats.
  • 7. Cripps Mission (1942), Cabinet Mission (1946) and Mountbatten Plan (1947) are different.
  • 8. Alluri Sitarama Raju's revolt is in the Godavari hills; Chirala-Perala is on the coast against a municipal tax.

One-liners

  • 1. W.C. Bonnerjee was the first Congress president.
  • 2. The Surat split came in 1907.
  • 3. The Muslim League was formed in 1906.
  • 4. Tilak said "Swaraj is my birthright".
  • 5. Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh fall in 1919.
  • 6. The Swaraj Party was formed in 1923.
  • 7. The Simon Commission came in 1927-28.
  • 8. The Dandi March began on 12 March 1930.
  • 9. The Poona Pact was signed in 1932.
  • 10. Quit India started on 8 August 1942.
  • 11. Alluri Sitarama Raju led the Rampa rebellion.
  • 12. Potti Sriramulu fasted unto death for Andhra State.

Practice questions

  1. The first president of the Indian National Congress was

    1. A.O. Hume
    2. Surendranath Banerjee
    3. Dadabhai Naoroji
    4. W.C. Bonnerjee
    Answer

    D. W.C. Bonnerjee

    The first session was held at Bombay in December 1885.

  2. The Indian National Congress was founded in

    1. 1885
    2. 1905
    3. 1919
    4. 1876
    Answer

    A. 1885

    A.O. Hume was a main organiser.

  3. The Partition of Bengal came into effect in 1905 under

    1. Lord Hardinge
    2. Lord Minto
    3. Lord Ripon
    4. Lord Curzon
    Answer

    D. Lord Curzon

    It was effective on 16 October 1905.

  4. The Congress split into Moderates and Extremists at

    1. Lucknow in 1916
    2. Nagpur in 1920
    3. Lahore in 1929
    4. Surat in 1907
    Answer

    D. Surat in 1907

    The dispute was over boycott and swaraj.

  5. The Muslim League was founded in 1906 at

    1. Dacca
    2. Lahore
    3. Lucknow
    4. Karachi
    Answer

    A. Dacca

    The Aga Khan and Salimullah Khan were among the founders.

  6. Who started the Home Rule League at Poona in 1916?

    1. Bal Gangadhar Tilak
    2. Bipin Chandra Pal
    3. Gokhale
    4. Annie Besant
    Answer

    A. Bal Gangadhar Tilak

    Annie Besant's league was at Madras.

  7. The Lucknow Pact of 1916 was between

    1. the Congress and the Swarajists
    2. the Congress and the Muslim League
    3. Gandhi and Ambedkar
    4. Gandhi and Irwin
    Answer

    B. the Congress and the Muslim League

    It brought the two parties together for a common demand.

  8. The Rowlatt Act of 1919 allowed

    1. provincial autonomy
    2. tax on salt
    3. separate electorates
    4. detention without trial
    Answer

    D. detention without trial

    It led to protests and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

  9. The Jallianwala Bagh firing took place on

    1. 13 April 1919
    2. 16 August 1946
    3. 12 March 1930
    4. 8 August 1942
    Answer

    A. 13 April 1919

    General Dyer ordered the firing at Amritsar.

  10. The Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn after the incident at

    1. Bardoli
    2. Chauri Chaura
    3. Dandi
    4. Champaran
    Answer

    B. Chauri Chaura

    The violence of February 1922 led Gandhi to stop it.

  11. The Swaraj Party was formed in 1923 by

    1. Tilak and Besant
    2. Jinnah and Iqbal
    3. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru
    4. Gandhi and Patel
    Answer

    C. C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru

    They wished to enter the councils and obstruct from within.

  12. The Simon Commission was boycotted because

    1. it was led by an Indian
    2. it banned the Congress
    3. it proposed Partition
    4. it had no Indian member
    Answer

    D. it had no Indian member

    Protesters shouted 'Simon Go Back'.

  13. The Congress declared Purna Swaraj as its aim at the session held at

    1. Karachi in 1931
    2. Bombay in 1885
    3. Lahore in 1929
    4. Nagpur in 1920
    Answer

    C. Lahore in 1929

    Jawaharlal Nehru presided over the session.

  14. The Dandi March began on

    1. 26 January 1930
    2. 12 March 1930
    3. 6 April 1930
    4. 8 August 1942
    Answer

    B. 12 March 1930

    The salt law was broken at Dandi on 6 April.

  15. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed in

    1. 1919
    2. 1946
    3. 1942
    4. 1931
    Answer

    D. 1931

    It suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement.

  16. The Poona Pact (1932) was signed between

    1. Gandhi and Ambedkar
    2. Gandhi and Irwin
    3. Tilak and Besant
    4. Nehru and Jinnah
    Answer

    A. Gandhi and Ambedkar

    It gave reserved seats in joint electorates.

  17. The Quit India Movement began on 8 August 1942 at

    1. Jallianwala Bagh
    2. Gowalia Tank, Bombay
    3. Sabarmati Ashram
    4. Dandi
    Answer

    B. Gowalia Tank, Bombay

    Gandhi gave the call 'Do or Die'.

  18. The Cripps Mission of 1942 offered

    1. abolition of the Viceroy's council
    2. separate electorates
    3. immediate independence
    4. Dominion status after the war
    Answer

    D. Dominion status after the war

    It was rejected by the Congress.

  19. The Mountbatten Plan of 3 June 1947 proposed

    1. a Constituent Assembly of princes
    2. continued British rule
    3. the Partition of India
    4. a federal union with Pakistan
    Answer

    C. the Partition of India

    It led to the Independence Act of 1947.

  20. The Rampa rebellion of 1922-24 was led by

    1. Alluri Sitarama Raju
    2. Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya
    3. Potti Sriramulu
    4. Tanguturi Prakasam
    Answer

    A. Alluri Sitarama Raju

    Tribal people of the Godavari hills took part.

  21. Who is known as 'Andhra Kesari' for facing police firing in the Simon Commission protest?

    1. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
    2. Konda Venkatappayya
    3. Alluri Sitarama Raju
    4. Tanguturi Prakasam
    Answer

    D. Tanguturi Prakasam

    He bared his chest at Madras in 1928.

  22. The Government of India Act of 1919 introduced

    1. dyarchy in the provinces
    2. Dominion status
    3. federation at the centre
    4. provincial autonomy
    Answer

    A. dyarchy in the provinces

    Subjects were divided into transferred and reserved.

  23. The Communal Award of 1932 was opposed by Gandhi because it

    1. abolished the councils
    2. gave separate electorates to the depressed classes
    3. gave votes to women
    4. ended the princely states
    Answer

    B. gave separate electorates to the depressed classes

    Gandhi feared it would divide Hindu society, and he fasted.

  24. The Chirala-Perala movement (1919-21) was a protest against

    1. the indigo tax
    2. the Partition of Bengal
    3. a municipal tax in Andhra
    4. a forest law
    Answer

    C. a municipal tax in Andhra

    The townspeople left their homes in protest.

  25. Why was the Government of India Act of 1935 important?

    1. It created Pakistan
    2. It gave full independence
    3. It gave provincial autonomy and led to the 1937 elections
    4. It abolished the Viceroy
    Answer

    C. It gave provincial autonomy and led to the 1937 elections

    The Congress won in most provinces.

  26. Why did the Congress ministries resign in 1939?

    1. The British banned the Congress
    2. India was declared a belligerent in the war without consultation
    3. The Muslim League won the elections
    4. They lost their majority
    Answer

    B. India was declared a belligerent in the war without consultation

    The Congress objected to the unilateral declaration.

  27. Komaram Bheem's slogan 'jal, jangal, zameen' was about

    1. rights over water, forest and land
    2. salt, cloth and tax
    3. school, court and road
    4. trade, port and mine
    Answer

    A. rights over water, forest and land

    He led the Gond uprising against the Nizam's rule.

  28. The Andhra State was formed in 1953 after the death of

    1. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
    2. Alluri Sitarama Raju
    3. Tanguturi Prakasam
    4. Potti Sriramulu
    Answer

    D. Potti Sriramulu

    He fasted for a separate Andhra and died in December 1952.

  29. Which pair is correctly matched?

    1. Simon Commission - 1919
    2. Poona Pact - 1942
    3. Cabinet Mission - 1946
    4. Cripps Mission - 1946
    Answer

    C. Cabinet Mission - 1946

    Cripps was 1942; Simon was 1927-28; Poona Pact was 1932.

  30. Statements: 1. The Congress declared Purna Swaraj at Lahore in 1929. 2. The Dandi March started on 12 March 1930. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  31. Statements: 1. The Poona Pact gave separate electorates to the depressed classes. 2. The Communal Award was announced in 1932. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The Poona Pact replaced separate electorates with reserved seats.

  32. Statements: 1. Annie Besant's league was in Poona. 2. The Home Rule Leagues were started in 1916. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Besant's league was in Madras.

  33. Statements: 1. The Cripps Mission was in 1942. 2. The Cabinet Mission was in 1946. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  34. Statements: 1. Moderates used constitutional methods. 2. Extremists included Lal, Bal and Pal. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  35. Statements: 1. Gandhi attended the First Round Table Conference. 2. Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed before the Second Round Table Conference. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Gandhi attended the second conference only.

  36. Statements: 1. Chirala-Perala was led by Alluri Sitarama Raju. 2. Alluri Sitarama Raju led a tribal revolt in the Godavari hills. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Chirala-Perala was led by Duggirala Gopalakrishnayya.

  37. Statements: 1. It included Indian members. 2. The Simon Commission came to India in 1928 to review the Act of 1919. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    It was an all-white commission.

  38. Statements: 1. Quit India began in 1942. 2. The INA was formed by Subhas Chandra Bose in Southeast Asia. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  39. Statements: 1. The Indian Councils Act of 1909 provided separate electorates for Muslims. 2. Muslim League was founded in 1906. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

  40. Statements: 1. The Non-Cooperation Movement was withdrawn after Chauri Chaura. 2. Civil Disobedience started with the Quit India call. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Civil Disobedience began with the Dandi march in 1930.

  41. Statements: 1. Tanguturi Prakasam later became the first chief minister of Andhra State. 2. Pattabhi Sitaramayya became Congress president in 1948. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are standard facts.

  42. Statements: 1. Direct Action Day was declared by the Muslim League. 2. It took place in 1930. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    It was on 16 August 1946.

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