Mughal Administration, Marathas and Culture

What to remember

• The Mughal state rested on the mansabdari system (rank in zat and sawar), a cash-based land revenue (Akbar's Zabt and Dahsala) and a policy of sulh-i-kul (peace with all) that brought Rajputs and others into the nobility.
• Shivaji built a Maratha state with an eight-minister council (Ashtapradhan), forts, a strong navy and a revenue system based on land measurement plus chauth and sardeshmukhi on outside areas.
• Mughal culture mixed Persian and Indian styles in architecture, painting, music and literature; the Marathas and the Deccan states carried parts of the same culture.

1. Foundations: Babur to Sher Shah

Babur won the First Battle of Panipat (1526) over Ibrahim Lodi and the Battle of Khanwa (1527) over Rana Sanga. Humayun lost the throne to Sher Shah Suri in 1540 and recovered it in 1555. Sher Shah ruled only five years, but his reforms shaped Akbar's system.

• Land was measured, and the farmer got a written deed (*patta*) and gave a written agreement (*qabuliyat*).
• A new silver coin, the *rupiya*, and a copper coin, the *dam*, were issued.
• The Grand Trunk Road was built with rest houses (*sarais*).
• The empire was divided into *sarkars* and *parganas*, with officials in each.

2. Mughal central and provincial administration

Under Akbar the emperor was the source of all power. The main officers were:

The empire was divided into subas (provinces), each under a *Subahdar* (also *Sipahsalar* or *Nazim*), with a *Diwan* for revenue, a *Bakhshi* for the army, a *Qazi*, and a *Kotwal* for the town. A suba had sarkars; a sarkar had parganas. The checks and balances between the Subahdar and the Diwan stopped one officer from becoming too strong.

3. Mansabdari system

Introduced by Akbar (c. 1570-71), it gave each officer a numerical rank, a *mansab*. The rank had two parts:

• Zat fixed the personal status and salary.
• Sawar showed the number of horsemen the officer must maintain.

Ranks ranged from 10 up to 10,000 (the highest ranks were for princes of the blood). Officers were paid in cash or through a *jagir* (a land assignment for revenue). Lands directly under the emperor were *khalisa*. Mansabs were not hereditary; the emperor could promote, demote or transfer. Horses were branded (*dagh*) and soldiers were listed (*chehra*) to prevent fraud. Under Aurangzeb, a shortage of jagirs for the many nobles (the *jagirdari crisis*) weakened the system.

4. Land revenue system

Akbar's finance minister Todar Mal developed it with others.

• Zabti (Zabt): measurement of land and fixing of cash rates by crop. It was used in north India.
• Dahsala (1580): cash rates were calculated from the average yields and prices of the previous ten years, and applied for a period.
• Kankut: estimate of the produce by sample.
• Batai/Ghalla Bakhshi: sharing of the actual crop.
• Nasaq: a method based on past records.

Land was grouped by fertility (*polaj*, *parauti*, *chachar*, *banjar*). The state share was one-third in theory, but in practice it varied and went higher later. Zamindars collected revenue and kept a share.

5. Rulers and their policy

• Akbar (1556-1605): abolished the pilgrim tax (1563) and *jizya* (1564); built the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri (1575); issued the *Mahzar* (1579); started *Din-i-Ilahi* (1582), a code of ethics for a small circle; followed *sulh-i-kul*. The *Ain-i-Akbari* by Abul Fazl describes his administration.
• Jahangir (1605-27): Chain of Justice; patron of painting.
• Shah Jahan (1628-58): the age of grand architecture; Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid in Delhi, Peacock Throne.
• Aurangzeb (1658-1707): reimposed jizya (1679); long wars in the Deccan; strict orthodoxy; Moti Masjid in the Red Fort.

6. Maratha state under Shivaji

Shivaji was born at Shivneri in 1630. He began with the capture of Torna and built Raigad as capital. He killed Afzal Khan (1659), the Bijapur general, and Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor, was attacked in Pune. The Treaty of Purandar (1665) with Jai Singh forced Shivaji to give up many forts. His escape from Agra (1666) restored his power. He crowned himself at Raigad in 1674, taking the title *Chhatrapati*. He also led an expedition to the south, including Jinji.

Ashtapradhan (eight ministers):

Revenue: Land was measured with a rod (*kathi*), and the state demand was collected, in the Maratha homeland, from the farmer directly with few hereditary middlemen. Outside the kingdom, he levied chauth (one-fourth of revenue) and sardeshmukhi (an extra one-tenth) in return for not raiding. The army had paid soldiers, strict discipline, light cavalry and many hill forts; he also built a navy on the western coast.

7. The Marathas after Shivaji

After Shivaji came Sambhaji, Rajaram and Tarabai, then Shahu. Under Shahu, power moved to the Peshwas. Balaji Vishwanath made a treaty with the Sayyid brothers (1719) which gave the Marathas chauth and sardeshmukhi over the Deccan provinces. Baji Rao I expanded in the north. The Marathas lost heavily at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Maratha confederacy (Holkar, Scindia, Gaekwad, Bhonsle) fought three wars with the British (1775-82, 1803-05, 1817-18) and was finally defeated. A branch of the Bhonsle family ruled at Thanjavur, where the Saraswati Mahal Library grew under Serfoji II.

8. Culture of the Mughal and Deccan age

Architecture.

• *Humayun's tomb* (Delhi) was built by Humayun's widow Haji Begum; double dome, garden-tomb pattern, forerunner of the Taj.
• *Akbar:* Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri (Buland Darwaza, Jodha Bai's palace, Panch Mahal), blending Gujarat and Rajput styles.
• *Shah Jahan:* marble, pietra dura inlay, the Taj Mahal at Agra.
• *Aurangzeb:* Bibi ka Maqbara at Aurangabad; Badshahi Mosque at Lahore.

Painting. Humayun brought Persian painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad. Akbar's *Hamzanama* is a large illustrated work. Jahangir's court stressed realistic study of birds, animals and flowers; Ustad Mansur and Bishandas were famous artists. Portraits and darbar scenes were common. Under Aurangzeb, royal patronage fell and artists moved to regional courts.

Music. Akbar patronised Tansen, a master of *dhrupad*. Literature. Persian was the court language; *Akbarnama* and *Ain-i-Akbari* by Abul Fazl; *Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri*; *Padshahnama*. Vernacular poets such as Tulsidas, Surdas and Rahim flourished. Sanskrit works were translated into Persian.

Deccan and Telugu country. The Qutb Shahis of Golconda blended Persian and Telugu cultures, and encouraged Telugu poetry; the Charminar and Golconda Fort show their style. Maratha rulers of Thanjavur supported Telugu, Tamil and Marathi arts and music.

9. Why the Mughal system worked, and why it weakened

The mansabdari system tied the nobility to the throne, because rank, pay and promotion all came from the emperor. Mixed groups of Turani, Iranian, Afghan, Rajput and Indian Muslim nobles balanced one another. Cash revenue (Zabt) let the state pay its officers and keep trade moving. Under Aurangzeb, long wars in the Deccan, a fall in jagir income and revolts by Jats, Sikhs, Satnamis and Marathas drained the treasury. After 1707 weak rulers, struggles among nobles and the invasions of Nadir Shah (1739) and Ahmad Shah Abdali broke the empire's unity, and regional states such as Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad became almost independent.

Exam traps

• 1. Zat shows rank and salary; sawar shows the number of horsemen. They are not the same.
• 2. Dahsala was Akbar's system (1580), not Sher Shah's.
• 3. Sher Shah introduced the patta and qabuliyat; Akbar built the mansabdari and Zabt.
• 4. Jizya was abolished by Akbar (1564) and reimposed by Aurangzeb (1679).
• 5. Chauth is one-fourth; sardeshmukhi is an additional one-tenth.
• 6. The Peshwa was the prime minister in the Ashtapradhan; the Senapati led the army.
• 7. Humayun's tomb was built by Haji Begum; the Taj Mahal was built by Shah Jahan.
• 8. The Treaty of Purandar (1665) was with Jai Singh; Shivaji's coronation was at Raigad in 1674.

One-liners

• 1. Mansabdari was introduced by Akbar.
• 2. Todar Mal helped Akbar with revenue reforms.
• 3. Dahsala dates to 1580.
• 4. The Ain-i-Akbari was written by Abul Fazl.
• 5. Sher Shah issued the silver rupiya.
• 6. Din-i-Ilahi was started in 1582.
• 7. The Grand Trunk Road was developed by Sher Shah.
• 8. Shivaji was crowned in 1674 at Raigad.
• 9. Ashtapradhan means eight ministers.
• 10. The Third Battle of Panipat was fought in 1761.
• 11. Tansen was a musician at Akbar's court.
• 12. The Taj Mahal and Red Fort belong to Shah Jahan's age.

Practice questions

1. In the mansabdari system, 'sawar' indicated

   1. the personal salary of the officer
   2. the size of his jagir
   3. the rank in the civil service
   4. the number of horsemen an officer had to maintain
   Answer

   D. the number of horsemen an officer had to maintain

   Zat was personal rank; sawar was the cavalry obligation.

2. Who introduced the mansabdari system?

   1. Sher Shah
   2. Shah Jahan
   3. Babur
   4. Akbar
   Answer

   D. Akbar

   Akbar introduced the mansabs around 1570-71.

3. Land directly under the Mughal emperor, whose revenue went to the treasury, was called

   1. jagir
   2. inam
   3. suyurghal
   4. khalisa
   Answer

   D. khalisa

   Khalisa land was crown land; jagir land was assigned to mansabdars.

4. Dahsala revenue settlement of Akbar was introduced in

   1. 1564
   2. 1580
   3. 1556
   4. 1605
   Answer

   B. 1580

   It used ten years' average yield and prices.

5. Which finance minister is linked with Akbar's revenue reforms?

   1. Todar Mal
   2. Man Singh
   3. Birbal
   4. Bairam Khan
   Answer

   A. Todar Mal

   Todar Mal developed Zabti and Dahsala.

6. The author of the Ain-i-Akbari was

   1. Badauni
   2. Abul Fazl
   3. Jahangir
   4. Faizi
   Answer

   B. Abul Fazl

   It describes Akbar's administration and empire.

7. Who issued the silver coin rupiya and the copper dam?

   1. Alauddin Khalji
   2. Akbar
   3. Iltutmish
   4. Sher Shah
   Answer

   D. Sher Shah

   Sher Shah's coinage was the basis of Mughal coinage.

8. The jizya was reimposed in 1679 by

   1. Aurangzeb
   2. Jahangir
   3. Shah Jahan
   4. Humayun
   Answer

   A. Aurangzeb

   Akbar had abolished it in 1564.

9. Fatehpur Sikri's Buland Darwaza was built by

   1. Akbar
   2. Shah Jahan
   3. Aurangzeb
   4. Jahangir
   Answer

   A. Akbar

   It was built to mark a victory in Gujarat.

10. The Taj Mahal was built by

    1. Jahangir
    2. Humayun
    3. Akbar
    4. Shah Jahan
    Answer

    D. Shah Jahan

    It is the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal at Agra.

11. Humayun's tomb at Delhi was built under the care of

    1. Nur Jahan
    2. Haji Begum
    3. Mumtaz Mahal
    4. Jahanara
    Answer

    B. Haji Begum

    It is an early garden-tomb with a double dome.

12. Which musician at Akbar's court is a famous master of dhrupad?

    1. Baiju Bawra
    2. Tansen
    3. Purandaradasa
    4. Amir Khusrau
    Answer

    B. Tansen

    Tansen was one of the court musicians.

13. Shivaji was crowned Chhatrapati at

    1. Torna
    2. Purandar
    3. Raigad
    4. Pune
    Answer

    C. Raigad

    The coronation was in 1674.

14. The Treaty of Purandar (1665) was signed between Shivaji and

    1. Afzal Khan
    2. Shaista Khan
    3. Aurangzeb
    4. Jai Singh
    Answer

    D. Jai Singh

    Shivaji had to give up many forts to the Mughals.

15. Who was the Peshwa in the Ashtapradhan council?

    1. The prime minister
    2. The army commander
    3. The chief judge
    4. The foreign minister
    Answer

    A. The prime minister

    Peshwa was the head of the eight ministers.

16. In Shivaji's Ashtapradhan, the Senapati was in charge of

    1. religious grants
    2. the army
    3. the finance
    4. justice
    Answer

    B. the army

    Senapati (Sarnobat) was the commander.

17. Chauth in the Maratha system was a levy of

    1. one-fourth of the revenue
    2. one-third of the produce
    3. one-tenth of the revenue
    4. one-half of the produce
    Answer

    A. one-fourth of the revenue

    Sardeshmukhi was the extra one-tenth.

18. The Third Battle of Panipat was fought in 1761 between the Marathas and

    1. Aurangzeb
    2. Babur
    3. Ahmad Shah Abdali
    4. Nadir Shah
    Answer

    C. Ahmad Shah Abdali

    It was a heavy defeat for the Marathas.

19. What was the aim of the dagh and chehra in Mughal service?

    1. To record land measurements
    2. To appoint judges
    3. To collect taxes from towns
    4. To stop false musters and fraud in the cavalry
    Answer

    D. To stop false musters and fraud in the cavalry

    Branding of horses and listing of soldiers checked fake counts.

20. The 'jagirdari crisis' under Aurangzeb meant

    1. too many jagirs but few nobles
    2. the abolition of mansabs
    3. too few jagirs for too many mansabdars
    4. the end of land revenue
    Answer

    C. too few jagirs for too many mansabdars

    This shortage weakened the empire's military and revenue system.

21. Why was Akbar's policy of sulh-i-kul important?

    1. It promoted peace and equal treatment of all religions
    2. It created a priest class
    3. It forced all to follow the emperor's faith
    4. It banned all other religions
    Answer

    A. It promoted peace and equal treatment of all religions

    Sulh-i-kul meant universal peace and let him use Rajput nobles.

22. Dahsala differed from Kankut because Dahsala was based on

    1. sample estimates of the standing crop
    2. a fixed amount for each village
    3. sharing of the actual harvest
    4. ten-year average yield and price in cash
    Answer

    D. ten-year average yield and price in cash

    Kankut estimated produce by sample; Batai shared the crop.

23. The Mughals divided each suba into

    1. sarkars and parganas
    2. jagirs and iqtas
    3. shiqs and mahals only
    4. talukas and zillas
    Answer

    A. sarkars and parganas

    The hierarchy was suba, sarkar, pargana.

24. Shivaji's use of the kathi (measuring rod) shows that his revenue system

    1. was based on trade taxes only
    2. was based on forced labour
    3. was based on land measurement
    4. gave all land to forts
    Answer

    C. was based on land measurement

    The state demand was fixed after measurement.

25. Jahangir's court painting is known chiefly for

    1. naturalism in portraits, birds and flowers
    2. abstract designs
    3. only religious scenes
    4. wall paintings in caves
    Answer

    A. naturalism in portraits, birds and flowers

    Ustad Mansur painted birds and animals.

26. Which pair is correctly matched?

    1. Padshahnama - Abul Fazl
    2. Hamzanama - Akbar's court painting project
    3. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri - Babur
    4. Akbarnama - Shah Jahan
    Answer

    B. Hamzanama - Akbar's court painting project

    Padshahnama is of Shah Jahan's reign; Akbarnama by Abul Fazl.

27. The Maratha rulers of Thanjavur are remembered in culture for

    1. the Charminar
    2. the Buland Darwaza
    3. Fatehpur Sikri
    4. the Saraswati Mahal Library
    Answer

    D. the Saraswati Mahal Library

    The library grew under Serfoji II.

28. Statements: 1. Mansabs were strictly hereditary. 2. Zat denoted the personal rank of a mansabdar. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Mansabs were not hereditary.

29. Statements: 1. Akbar abolished the jizya. 2. Aurangzeb reimposed it. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are standard facts.

30. Statements: 1. Sardeshmukhi was a one-fourth levy. 2. Shivaji's Ashtapradhan had eight ministers. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Sardeshmukhi was one-tenth.

31. Statements: 1. Sher Shah introduced the mansabdari system. 2. Sher Shah's rupiya was a silver coin. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Mansabdari was introduced by Akbar.

32. Statements: 1. The Mir Bakhshi handled military pay and appointments. 2. The Muhtasib looked after public morals and weights and measures. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

33. Statements: 1. Din-i-Ilahi was a mass religion with millions of followers. 2. The Ibadat Khana was built at Fatehpur Sikri. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Din-i-Ilahi was only a small circle's ethical code.

34. Statements: 1. The Moti Masjid in the Red Fort was built by Akbar. 2. The Peacock Throne was made in Shah Jahan's time. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The Moti Masjid in the Red Fort is linked to Aurangzeb.

35. Statements: 1. The Third Battle of Panipat was in 1761. 2. The Marathas fought three wars with the British. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

36. Statements: 1. Shivaji did not have a navy. 2. Shivaji's capital was Raigad. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    He built a navy on the western coast.

37. Statements: 1. Dahsala was based on ten years' data. 2. Zabti was used mainly in Bengal only. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Zabti was used in north India, not only Bengal.

38. Statements: 1. Humayun's tomb has a double dome. 2. Humayun brought Persian painters to India. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

39. Statements: 1. Treaty of Purandar was signed in 1665. 2. Shivaji escaped from Agra before that treaty. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Agra escape (1666) was after the treaty.

40. Statements: 1. Babur defeated Rana Sanga at Khanwa. 2. Akbar established the Mughal Empire in 1526. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Babur founded the empire in 1526.

41. The Grand Trunk Road with roadside sarais was developed mainly by

    1. Jahangir
    2. Aurangzeb
    3. Akbar
    4. Sher Shah
    Answer

    D. Sher Shah

    Sher Shah improved the road from Bengal to the north-west.