Delhi Sultanate, Bhakti, Sufism and Regional Kingdoms

What to remember

• The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526) was built on the iqta system, a paid and transferable military administration, and was strengthened by Iltutmish, Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq in different ways.
• Bhakti and Sufism were parallel movements of devotion that stressed love for God over ritual, used local languages, and helped vernacular literature (Telugu, Marathi, Hindi, Bengali, Kannada) to grow.
• The Bahmani Sultanate (1347) and Vijayanagara (1336) were the two big Deccan powers; the Bahmani state later broke into five Deccan Sultanates, including Golconda, which ruled much of the Telugu country.

1. The five dynasties and their key rulers

The Sultanate had five ruling families: Slave (Mamluk), Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi.

Slave dynasty. Qutbuddin Aibak (from 1206) was the first Sultan. Iltutmish made Delhi the true capital, organised the iqta system, and introduced the silver *tanka* and copper *jital*. He formed a group of loyal nobles called *Turkan-i-Chahalgani* (the Forty). Razia (1236-40) was the only woman to rule from Delhi. Balban (ruled from 1266) raised the Sultan's dignity with a theory of kingship in which the Sultan is God's shadow (*zill-i-ilahi*). He introduced court practices such as *sijda* (prostration) and *paibos* (kissing the feet), and he broke the power of the Forty. He built a strong spy network and the military department *Diwan-i-Arz*.

Khalji dynasty. Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316) took direct control over the land revenue in the Doab, measured land, and fixed the state demand at about half of the produce. He charged house tax (*ghari*) and grazing tax (*chari*). To support a large army he fixed prices of grain, cloth, horses and slaves. A market officer, *Shahna-i-Mandi*, and a market department, *Diwan-i-Riyasat*, enforced the controls. He introduced *dagh* (branding of horses) and *chehra* (descriptive roll of soldiers) to stop fraud. His general Malik Kafur led campaigns to the south, including against the Kakatiya kingdom of Warangal.

Tughlaq dynasty. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-51) was a learned but experimental ruler. He moved the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad, issued token (copper and brass) coins at the value of silver, raised the revenue in the Doab, and set up an agriculture department (*Diwan-i-Amir-i-Kohi*). Most schemes failed because of poor planning and bad timing. The traveller Ibn Battuta served as a judge in his court. Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88) was a builder: he dug canals, founded Firozabad, Jaunpur, Hisar and other towns, set up *Diwan-i-Khairat* (charity department) and *Diwan-i-Bandagan* (slaves), and made the iqta hereditary again. He also charged jizya on Brahmanas. The invasion of Timur in 1398 broke the power of the Sultanate.

Sayyid and Lodi. The Sayyids (c. 1414-51) ruled over a shrunken state. The Lodis were Afghans. Sikandar Lodi founded Agra in 1504 and favoured the measuring of land (*gaz-i-Sikandari*). Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526.

2. Administration of the Sultanate

The Sultan was the head of state, the army and justice. He was helped by ministers.

• Wazir headed the *Diwan-i-Wizarat* (finance and revenue).
• Ariz-i-Mamalik headed the *Diwan-i-Arz* (army).
• Diwan-i-Insha handled royal correspondence.
• Diwan-i-Risalat handled religious grants and foreign affairs (in some accounts).
• Sadr-us-Sudur was the head of religious matters and charity; Qazi-ul-Quzat was the chief judge.

The empire was divided into *iqtas* (large provinces under *muqtis*), then *shiqs* and *parganas*. In the village the *Khut*, *Muqaddam* and *Chaudhari* were local revenue intermediaries. The land revenue (*kharaj*) was the main income. The Sultanate had a mixed economy: towns grew, trade with West and Central Asia expanded, and Persian was the court language.

3. The Bhakti movement

Bhakti means loving devotion to a personal God. It rose first in the Tamil country among the Alvars (Vaishnava) and Nayanars (Shaiva), and later spread north.

Philosophers (Vedanta schools). Shankara (Advaita, non-dualism), Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita, qualified non-dualism), Madhva (Dvaita, dualism), Nimbarka and Vallabha.

North India. Ramananda taught in Hindi and accepted disciples of all castes. Kabir and Ravidas rejected idol worship and caste. Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism) preached one formless God. Chaitanya spread Krishna bhakti in Bengal and Odisha through kirtan. Mirabai and Surdas were devotees of Krishna. Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi.

Maharashtra and the south. Jnaneshwar wrote the Jnaneshwari (a Marathi commentary on the Gita). Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram were saints of the Varkari tradition worshipping Vithoba at Pandharpur. Purandaradasa of Karnataka is called the father of Carnatic music. Shankaradeva spread bhakti in Assam.

Telugu country. Annamacharya composed thousands of devotional songs (sankirtanas) for Lord Venkateswara at Tirumala. Potana, the poet of the *Andhra Maha Bhagavatam*, translated the Bhagavata into Telugu and refused to dedicate it to a king. Kancherla Gopanna, known as Bhadrachala Ramadasu, built the temple at Bhadrachalam and composed songs on Rama in the Golconda period. Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri belong to a later age.

4. Sufism

Sufism is the mystic path of Islam. It stresses love of God, service to the poor, and the guidance of a teacher (*pir*) to a disciple (*murid*). Sufis met in a hospice (*khanqah*) and used music (*sama*) to reach a state of ecstasy. A chain of teachers was called a *silsila*.

The Chishtis kept away from the court, while the Suhrawardis accepted state gifts. Amir Khusrau, a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya, wrote in Persian and Hindavi, and is credited with qawwali and many musical forms.

5. Regional kingdoms

Vijayanagara (founded 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama family) was the Hindu empire of the south. Bahmani Sultanate was founded in 1347 by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah with its capital first at Gulbarga and later at Bidar. Mahmud Gawan, a Persian-born minister, reformed the revenue, divided the state into eight provinces and founded a madrasa at Bidar. After his execution the state split (c. 1490-1527) into five Deccan sultanates: Bijapur (Adil Shahi), Golconda (Qutb Shahi), Ahmednagar (Nizam Shahi), Berar (Imad Shahi) and Bidar (Barid Shahi).

The Qutb Shahis of Golconda ruled much of Telangana and coastal Andhra. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah founded Hyderabad and built the Charminar. They patronised Telugu poetry along with Persian and Dakhni Urdu. Other regional states: Jaunpur (Sharqis), Malwa, Gujarat, Bengal (Hussain Shah), Kashmir (Zain-ul-Abidin, called *Budshah*) and Mewar (Rana Kumbha).

6. Vernacular literature

• Telugu: Nannaya (Adikavi) began the Andhra Mahabharatam in the Eastern Chalukya court; Tikkana and Errana completed it, the trio called *Kavitrayam*. Under Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagara, Telugu reached a peak: he wrote *Amuktamalyada*, and his court had the *Ashtadiggajas* (eight poets) such as Allasani Peddana (*Manucharitra*) and Nandi Timmana. Tenali Ramakrishna and Dhurjati belong to this age.
• Marathi: Jnaneshwar, Eknath, Tukaram.
• Hindi/Awadhi/Braj: Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas.
• Bengali: Chandidas, Chaitanya's followers.
• Urdu/Dakhni: Amir Khusrau, and later Deccan poets.

Exam traps

• 1. Alauddin Khalji controlled prices; Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued token currency. Do not swap them.
• 2. Iltutmish is linked with iqta and the tanka; Balban with sijda and paibos.
• 3. Diwan-i-Arz (army) was set up by Balban; Diwan-i-Riyasat (market) by Alauddin.
• 4. Ramanuja is Vishishtadvaita; Shankara is Advaita; Madhva is Dvaita.
• 5. Chishti avoided the court; Suhrawardi accepted state support.
• 6. Bahmani capital: Gulbarga first, then Bidar. Bijapur is the Adil Shahi capital.
• 7. Nannaya is Adikavi; Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada; Peddana wrote Manucharitra.
• 8. Annamacharya sang for Venkateswara; Ramadasu built the temple at Bhadrachalam for Rama.

One-liners

• 1. The Sultanate began in 1206 with Qutbuddin Aibak.
• 2. Iltutmish introduced the silver tanka and copper jital.
• 3. Razia Sultan was the only woman Sultan of Delhi.
• 4. Balban's Diwan-i-Arz was the army department.
• 5. Alauddin Khalji's market officer was Shahna-i-Mandi.
• 6. Muhammad bin Tughlaq shifted the capital to Daulatabad.
• 7. Ibn Battuta visited India in the Tughlaq period.
• 8. Timur invaded India in 1398.
• 9. Babur ended the Lodis at Panipat in 1526.
• 10. Vijayanagara was founded in 1336 and the Bahmani state in 1347.
• 11. Mahmud Gawan was the great minister of the Bahmani state.
• 12. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah founded Hyderabad.

Practice questions

1. Who introduced the silver tanka and copper jital as standard coins of the Delhi Sultanate?

   1. Alauddin Khalji
   2. Iltutmish
   3. Balban
   4. Qutbuddin Aibak
   Answer

   B. Iltutmish

   Iltutmish standardised the silver tanka and copper jital.

2. Which Sultan of Delhi is known for the practices of sijda and paibos at court?

   1. Balban
   2. Iltutmish
   3. Sikandar Lodi
   4. Firoz Shah Tughlaq
   Answer

   A. Balban

   Balban raised the Sultan's dignity with prostration and kissing the feet.

3. The only woman to rule the Delhi Sultanate from Delhi was

   1. Jahanara
   2. Chand Bibi
   3. Nur Jahan
   4. Razia
   Answer

   D. Razia

   Razia ruled in 1236-40.

4. Which Sultan introduced token currency and shifted the capital to Daulatabad?

   1. Firoz Shah Tughlaq
   2. Alauddin Khalji
   3. Muhammad bin Tughlaq
   4. Ibrahim Lodi
   Answer

   C. Muhammad bin Tughlaq

   These are the best-known experiments of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

5. The market department set up by Alauddin Khalji was called

   1. Diwan-i-Arz
   2. Diwan-i-Riyasat
   3. Diwan-i-Khairat
   4. Diwan-i-Insha
   Answer

   B. Diwan-i-Riyasat

   Diwan-i-Riyasat with the Shahna-i-Mandi enforced price control.

6. Diwan-i-Khairat, a department for charity, was started by

   1. Alauddin Khalji
   2. Sikandar Lodi
   3. Balban
   4. Firoz Shah Tughlaq
   Answer

   D. Firoz Shah Tughlaq

   Firoz Shah also dug canals and founded towns.

7. The invasion of Timur took place in the reign of the

   1. Tughlaq dynasty
   2. Khalji dynasty
   3. Slave dynasty
   4. Lodi dynasty
   Answer

   A. Tughlaq dynasty

   Timur sacked Delhi in 1398 when the Tughlaq state was weak.

8. Who defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat?

   1. Sher Shah
   2. Akbar
   3. Babur
   4. Humayun
   Answer

   C. Babur

   Babur's victory in 1526 ended the Sultanate.

9. Branding of horses to prevent fraud in the army was called

   1. Chehra
   2. Jital
   3. Dagh
   4. Iqta
   Answer

   C. Dagh

   Dagh was the branding; chehra was the descriptive roll of soldiers.

10. Who is the author of Jnaneshwari, a Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita?

    1. Namdev
    2. Jnaneshwar
    3. Tukaram
    4. Eknath
    Answer

    B. Jnaneshwar

    Jnaneshwar belonged to the Varkari tradition.

11. The Qutb Shahi ruler who founded Hyderabad and built the Charminar was

    1. Ibrahim Adil Shah
    2. Mahmud Gawan
    3. Ahmad Shah Bahmani
    4. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
    Answer

    D. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah

    Hyderabad was founded by the Golconda ruler Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah.

12. The founder of the Bahmani Sultanate was

    1. Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah
    2. Mahmud Gawan
    3. Harihara
    4. Firoz Shah Bahmani
    Answer

    A. Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah

    The state was founded in 1347 with Gulbarga as capital.

13. Which Telugu poet wrote the Andhra Maha Bhagavatam?

    1. Errana
    2. Tikkana
    3. Potana
    4. Nannaya
    Answer

    C. Potana

    Potana translated the Bhagavata into Telugu.

14. Annamacharya is remembered for his devotional songs to the Lord at

    1. Srisailam
    2. Tirumala
    3. Bhadrachalam
    4. Simhachalam
    Answer

    B. Tirumala

    Annamacharya composed sankirtanas for Venkateswara.

15. The traveller Ibn Battuta visited India during the rule of

    1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq
    2. Balban
    3. Alauddin Khalji
    4. Akbar
    Answer

    A. Muhammad bin Tughlaq

    He served as a qazi at the Tughlaq court.

16. Nannaya, the Adikavi of Telugu, started the Telugu Mahabharata in the court of the

    1. Vijayanagara kings
    2. Kakatiyas
    3. Reddy kings
    4. Eastern Chalukyas
    Answer

    D. Eastern Chalukyas

    Nannaya wrote under Rajaraja Narendra of the Eastern Chalukyas.

17. Which Sufi silsila was founded in India by Moinuddin Chishti's tradition at Ajmer?

    1. Qadiri
    2. Suhrawardi
    3. Naqshbandi
    4. Chishti
    Answer

    D. Chishti

    The Chishti order is linked with Ajmer and Delhi.

18. The great minister who reformed the Bahmani state and founded a madrasa at Bidar was

    1. Amir Khusrau
    2. Mahmud Gawan
    3. Malik Kafur
    4. Zain-ul-Abidin
    Answer

    B. Mahmud Gawan

    Mahmud Gawan divided the kingdom into eight provinces.

19. Alauddin Khalji's price control policy was mainly meant to

    1. ban foreign trade
    2. reduce land revenue to one-tenth
    3. support a large standing army on low salaries
    4. help farmers get high prices
    Answer

    C. support a large standing army on low salaries

    Low prices let him pay soldiers lower wages while keeping a big army.

20. The main reason for the failure of the token currency of Muhammad bin Tughlaq was

    1. forgery was easy and the state did not stop it
    2. no mint existed in Delhi
    3. people refused trade with Persia
    4. silver mines closed in India
    Answer

    A. forgery was easy and the state did not stop it

    Local people made fake coins and the state had to redeem them.

21. The iqta system under Iltutmish was mainly a way to

    1. collect taxes from foreign merchants
    2. give land forever to temples
    3. pay nobles and army officers by land revenue assignments
    4. settle farmers in new towns
    Answer

    C. pay nobles and army officers by land revenue assignments

    An iqta was a revenue assignment for service, usually transferable.

22. Why did the Chishti saints keep away from the court?

    1. They believed closeness to rulers harmed spiritual life
    2. They were banned by the Sultan
    3. They were all foreign envoys
    4. They had no disciples in Delhi
    Answer

    A. They believed closeness to rulers harmed spiritual life

    Chishtis avoided state patronage; Suhrawardis accepted it.

23. A common feature of both Bhakti and Sufi movements was

    1. support for the caste system
    2. stress on love of God over rituals
    3. use of Sanskrit alone
    4. rejection of music
    Answer

    B. stress on love of God over rituals

    Both used songs and local languages to reach people.

24. The break-up of the Bahmani Sultanate led to the rise of

    1. the Maratha confederacy
    2. the Lodi dynasty
    3. the Vijayanagara empire
    4. five Deccan sultanates
    Answer

    D. five Deccan sultanates

    Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Berar and Bidar emerged.

25. Krishnadevaraya's court poets are collectively known as the

    1. Alvars
    2. Navaratnas
    3. Ashtadiggajas
    4. Kavitrayam
    Answer

    C. Ashtadiggajas

    The eight poets included Allasani Peddana.

26. Which of the following is correctly paired?

    1. Allasani Peddana - Manucharitra
    2. Tikkana - Andhra Maha Bhagavatam
    3. Potana - Manucharitra
    4. Nannaya - Amuktamalyada
    Answer

    A. Allasani Peddana - Manucharitra

    Amuktamalyada is by Krishnadevaraya; Peddana wrote Manucharitra.

27. Which pair of philosopher and doctrine is correct?

    1. Shankara - Dvaita
    2. Ramanuja - Vishishtadvaita
    3. Madhva - Advaita
    4. Ramanuja - Dvaita
    Answer

    B. Ramanuja - Vishishtadvaita

    Shankara: Advaita; Ramanuja: qualified non-dualism; Madhva: Dvaita.

28. Which pair of ruler and capital is correct for Deccan states?

    1. Qutb Shahis - Bijapur
    2. Nizam Shahis - Bidar
    3. Adil Shahis - Golconda
    4. Bahmanis - first Gulbarga, later Bidar
    Answer

    D. Bahmanis - first Gulbarga, later Bidar

    Golconda is Qutb Shahi; Bijapur is Adil Shahi; Ahmednagar is Nizam Shahi.

29. Which pair of Sufi saint and silsila is correct?

    1. Baba Farid - Naqshbandi
    2. Ahmad Sirhindi - Chishti
    3. Nizamuddin Auliya - Suhrawardi
    4. Bahauddin Zakariya - Suhrawardi
    Answer

    D. Bahauddin Zakariya - Suhrawardi

    Bahauddin Zakariya of Multan was a Suhrawardi saint.

30. Which pair of reform in the Sultanate and ruler is correct?

    1. Hereditary iqta - Firoz Shah Tughlaq
    2. Gaz-i-Sikandari - Iltutmish
    3. Dagh and chehra - Muhammad bin Tughlaq
    4. Diwan-i-Arz - Alauddin Khalji
    Answer

    A. Hereditary iqta - Firoz Shah Tughlaq

    Firoz Shah made iqtas hereditary; dagh and chehra were Alauddin's.

31. Purandaradasa, who is called the father of Carnatic music, belongs to the tradition of

    1. Bengal Vaishnavism
    2. Maharashtra Varkari
    3. Karnataka Bhakti
    4. Assam Neo-Vaishnavism
    Answer

    C. Karnataka Bhakti

    He was a Kannada devotional composer.

32. The Sultanate's land revenue officials at village level included the

    1. Qazi and Mufti
    2. Wazir and Naib
    3. Khut and Muqaddam
    4. Sadr and Amil only
    Answer

    C. Khut and Muqaddam

    Khuts and Muqaddams were local intermediaries.

33. Statements: 1. Balban set up the army department Diwan-i-Arz. 2. Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of dagh and chehra. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both facts are standard.

34. Statements: 1. Firoz Shah Tughlaq issued token currency. 2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq founded the city of Firozabad. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Token currency was Muhammad's; Firozabad was founded by Firoz.

35. Statements: 1. Timur invaded India in 1398. 2. Sikandar Lodi founded Agra in 1504. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

36. Statements: 1. Golconda was the capital of the Adil Shahis. 2. Mahmud Gawan was a minister of the Bahmani state. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Golconda was the Qutb Shahi capital, so statement 2 is wrong.

37. Statements: 1. Kabir rejected idol worship and caste. 2. Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

38. Statements: 1. Amir Khusrau was a disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya. 2. The Chishti saints accepted royal grants freely. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Chishtis avoided state support; Khusrau was Nizamuddin's disciple.

39. Statements: 1. Annamacharya wrote the Amuktamalyada. 2. Potana refused to dedicate his Bhagavatam to a king. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Amuktamalyada is by Krishnadevaraya.

40. Statements: 1. Qutbuddin Aibak began Sultanate rule in 1206. 2. Iltutmish was the first Sultan of Delhi. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Aibak was the first Sultan; Iltutmish consolidated rule.

41. Statements: 1. Vijayanagara was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka. 2. The Bahmani state was founded in 1347. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both dates are standard.

42. Statements: 1. Ramanuja taught Advaita. 2. Madhva taught Dvaita. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Ramanuja taught Vishishtadvaita.

43. Statements: 1. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah founded Hyderabad. 2. Kancherla Gopanna lived in the Golconda period. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

44. Statements: 1. Ibn Battuta came to India before Alauddin Khalji. 2. Razia ruled before Balban. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Ibn Battuta came under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, after Alauddin.

45. Statements: 1. Mahmud Gawan founded a madrasa at Bidar. 2. Zain-ul-Abidin ruled Bengal. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Zain-ul-Abidin ruled Kashmir.