Reformers and Social Movements

What to remember

• The 19th-century reform movements (Brahmo Samaj to Ramakrishna Mission) worked through reason and religion: some looked to the past (Arya Samaj), others to Western ideas (Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj), and all attacked sati, child marriage, caste and the ban on widow remarriage.
• The lower-caste and non-Brahmin movements of Phule, Narayana Guru, Periyar and Ambedkar demanded social equality and not only reform of ritual.
• In Andhra, Kandukuri Veeresalingam led social reform and Gurajada Apparao, Gidugu Ramamurthy and others brought a modern spirit to Telugu writing.

1. Why reform arose

English education, the printing press, contact with Western ideas and Christian missionary criticism made educated Indians question social evils. They aimed to modernise society while keeping a sense of national pride. Their methods were petitions, newspapers, schools and societies; the colonial state helped through laws.

2. Early reformers

Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833) is called the "Father of Modern India". He started the *Atmiya Sabha* (1815) and the Brahmo Sabha (1828), which became the Brahmo Samaj. It opposed idol worship, priestly control, sati and caste, and accepted the Upanishads and reason. He wrote *Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin* in Persian and ran the journals *Sambad Kaumudi* (Bengali) and *Mirat-ul-Akbar* (Persian). His campaign led to the abolition of sati in 1829 by Lord William Bentinck. He also supported English education and the freedom of the press.

Debendranath Tagore carried the Brahmo Samaj forward; Keshab Chandra Sen was more radical (inter-caste marriages) and led to a split. Henry Derozio inspired the Young Bengal radicals through the Hindu College. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar worked for women's education and widow remarriage, which led to the Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856.

3. Religious reform in other regions

• Prarthana Samaj (1867, Bombay): Atmaram Pandurang, with M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar. It stressed one God and social reform, not a break from Hindu society.
• Arya Samaj (1875, Bombay): Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Slogan "Back to the Vedas"; book *Satyarth Prakash*; opposed idol worship, caste by birth and untouchability; supported widow remarriage and women's education; *shuddhi* (re-conversion); started Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) schools.
• Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Founded by Swami Vivekananda after his master Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. Vivekananda spoke at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago (1893). The Mission stressed service to humanity (*daridra narayana*) and combined spiritual and social work.
• Theosophical Society: Started in New York (1875) by Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott; shifted to Adyar, Madras (1882). Annie Besant led it later and started the Central Hindu College at Banaras and the Home Rule League.
• Muslim reform: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh (1875) and promoted modern education; the Deoband school (1866) stressed religious revival; the Ahmadiyya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.
• Sikh and Parsi reform: The Singh Sabha (1873) and Khalsa College at Amritsar; the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (1851) among the Parsis, led by Naoroji Furdonji and S.S. Bengalee.

4. Non-Brahmin and anti-caste movements

Jyotirao Phule (1827-90, Maharashtra). He started a school for girls in Pune in 1848 with his wife Savitribai Phule, formed the Satyashodhak Samaj (1873) and wrote *Gulamgiri* (1873), which compared the position of low castes to slavery. He opposed Brahmin priestly control and worked for widows and for farmers.

Narayana Guru (Kerala). He consecrated a Shiva idol at Aruvippuram (1888) in a challenge to Brahmin monopoly of worship. He founded the SNDP (Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam, 1903). His message was "One caste, one religion, one God for man". The Ezhava community gained from his work.

Periyar E.V. Ramasamy (Tamil Nadu). He joined the Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25, Kerala) for the right of lower castes to use temple roads. He left the Congress and started the Self-Respect Movement (1925), which attacked Brahmin priesthood, caste and superstition and supported women's rights, widow remarriage and inter-caste and simple marriages without priests. Later he led the Dravidar Kazhagam (1944).

B.R. Ambedkar (Maharashtra). He started the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924), led the Mahad Satyagraha (1927) for water rights, and negotiated the Poona Pact (1932). He is covered further in the Constitution part.

5. Reform in the Telugu region

Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848-1919) is called the father of the social reform movement in Andhra. He conducted the first widow remarriage in the Telugu country at Rajahmundry (1881), set up the Hitakarini Samajam, ran the journal *Viveka Vardhini*, opposed child marriage and the devadasi practice, promoted women's education, and wrote the first Telugu novel *Rajasekhara Charitramu* and many essays and plays. Raghupati Venkataratnam Naidu was a Brahmo reformer in Kakinada. Gurajada Apparao wrote the play *Kanyasulkam*, a sharp satire against the bride-price system and social evils, and the patriotic song *Desamunu Preminchumanna*. He pioneered the use of spoken Telugu and the short story (*Diddubatu*). Gidugu Venkata Ramamurthy led the spoken-language (*vyavaharika*) movement and worked on the Sora (Savara) language. Unnava Lakshminarayana wrote *Malapalli*, a novel about social and caste problems. In Telangana, Bhagya Reddy Varma worked for the education and rights of Dalits.

6. Laws on social reform

7. Women's reform and the wider ideas

Women's issues stood at the centre of reform. Reformers attacked sati, child marriage, the purdah system, the ban on widow remarriage and the lack of girls' education. Pandita Ramabai set up the Arya Mahila Samaj and the Sharada Sadan, a home for widows. Savitribai Phule is regarded as one of India's first women teachers. The Bethune School (1849) in Calcutta, and later the SNDT Women's University set up by D.K. Karve (1916), widened learning for girls. In Andhra, Veeresalingam opened schools for girls and his work was carried on by many women's associations in the early 20th century.

Reform leaders used different ideas. Some stressed reason and the individual (Roy, Derozio). Some stressed a lost golden age (Dayananda). Some stressed spiritual unity and service (Vivekananda). Others, such as Phule, Narayana Guru and Periyar, said that religion alone could not end injustice and that the caste order itself should be changed. Reformers also helped the growth of Indian languages: they printed journals and tracts in Bengali, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu. This created a public that could discuss social questions, and it laid the ground for later nationalism.

8. Limits and importance

The early movements reached mainly the educated, urban, upper-caste groups. Many reformers took the help of the colonial state to pass laws, and some, such as Dayananda, took a revivalist line that later fed communal feeling. The non-Brahmin movements broadened the base. Despite limits, the movements ended some of the cruellest customs, opened schools for girls and for the lower castes, and prepared Indians for a modern, self-confident society.

Exam traps

• 1. Brahmo Samaj (Roy, Calcutta) is different from Prarthana Samaj (Bombay) and Arya Samaj (Dayananda).
• 2. Sati was abolished in 1829, but the widow remarriage law is of 1856.
• 3. Arya Samaj: "Back to the Vedas"; Brahmo Samaj stressed the Upanishads and reason.
• 4. Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission; Ramakrishna Paramahamsa did not.
• 5. Phule's Gulamgiri is not by Ambedkar.
• 6. The Self-Respect Movement (1925) is Periyar's; SNDP (1903) is Narayana Guru's.
• 7. Veeresalingam is the reformer; Gurajada Apparao is the playwright of Kanyasulkam.
• 8. The Theosophical Society's Indian headquarters is at Adyar, not at Banaras.

One-liners

• 1. Rammohan Roy started the Brahmo Sabha in 1828.
• 2. Bentinck abolished sati in 1829.
• 3. Vidyasagar is linked with widow remarriage.
• 4. The Arya Samaj was founded in 1875.
• 5. Vivekananda spoke at Chicago in 1893.
• 6. The Ramakrishna Mission was founded in 1897.
• 7. Phule's Satyashodhak Samaj was founded in 1873.
• 8. Narayana Guru's SNDP began in 1903.
• 9. The Self-Respect Movement began in 1925.
• 10. Veeresalingam held the first widow remarriage in the Telugu country in 1881.
• 11. Gurajada Apparao wrote Kanyasulkam.
• 12. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the Aligarh college in 1875.

Practice questions

1. Who founded the Brahmo Sabha in 1828?

   1. Dayananda Saraswati
   2. Debendranath Tagore
   3. Keshab Chandra Sen
   4. Raja Rammohan Roy
   Answer

   D. Raja Rammohan Roy

   It later became the Brahmo Samaj.

2. Sati was abolished in 1829 by

   1. Lord Cornwallis
   2. Lord Canning
   3. Lord Dalhousie
   4. Lord William Bentinck
   Answer

   D. Lord William Bentinck

   Roy's campaign supported the law.

3. The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of 1856 was supported by

   1. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
   2. Dayananda Saraswati
   3. Jyotirao Phule
   4. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
   Answer

   D. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

   Vidyasagar led the campaign.

4. The Arya Samaj was founded in 1875 by

   1. Ranade
   2. Vivekananda
   3. Atmaram Pandurang
   4. Dayananda Saraswati
   Answer

   D. Dayananda Saraswati

   Its slogan was 'Back to the Vedas'.

5. Satyarth Prakash is the book of

   1. Vivekananda
   2. Periyar
   3. Phule
   4. Dayananda Saraswati
   Answer

   D. Dayananda Saraswati

   It explains the teachings of the Arya Samaj.

6. Swami Vivekananda spoke at the Parliament of Religions in

   1. Chicago
   2. London
   3. Paris
   4. New York
   Answer

   A. Chicago

   The year was 1893.

7. The Ramakrishna Mission was founded by

   1. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
   2. Annie Besant
   3. Dayananda
   4. Vivekananda
   Answer

   D. Vivekananda

   It was founded in 1897.

8. Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 at

   1. Bombay
   2. Calcutta
   3. Madras
   4. Lahore
   Answer

   A. Bombay

   Atmaram Pandurang started it.

9. The Indian headquarters of the Theosophical Society was at

   1. Pune
   2. Adyar
   3. Banaras
   4. Aligarh
   Answer

   B. Adyar

   It shifted there in 1882.

10. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at

    1. Aligarh
    2. Bhopal
    3. Deoband
    4. Lahore
    Answer

    A. Aligarh

    It later became Aligarh Muslim University.

11. Jyotirao Phule's Satyashodhak Samaj was founded in

    1. 1828
    2. 1897
    3. 1875
    4. 1873
    Answer

    D. 1873

    The same year he wrote Gulamgiri.

12. The Self-Respect Movement was started in 1925 by

    1. Phule
    2. Ambedkar
    3. Periyar E.V. Ramasamy
    4. Narayana Guru
    Answer

    C. Periyar E.V. Ramasamy

    It attacked caste and priestly control.

13. Narayana Guru's famous message was

    1. One caste, one religion, one God for man
    2. Go back to the village
    3. Service to the poor is service to God
    4. Back to the Vedas
    Answer

    A. One caste, one religion, one God for man

    He founded the SNDP in 1903.

14. Narayana Guru consecrated a Shiva idol in 1888 at

    1. Vaikom
    2. Guruvayur
    3. Mahad
    4. Aruvippuram
    Answer

    D. Aruvippuram

    It challenged Brahmin monopoly of worship.

15. The Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25) demanded

    1. boycott of foreign cloth
    2. entry of lower castes to the temple roads
    3. abolition of salt tax
    4. end of sati
    Answer

    B. entry of lower castes to the temple roads

    Periyar took part in the movement.

16. The first widow remarriage in the Telugu country (1881) was conducted by

    1. Unnava Lakshminarayana
    2. Gurajada Apparao
    3. Kandukuri Veeresalingam
    4. Gidugu Ramamurthy
    Answer

    C. Kandukuri Veeresalingam

    It took place at Rajahmundry.

17. The first Telugu novel Rajasekhara Charitramu was written by

    1. Viswanatha Satyanarayana
    2. Gurajada Apparao
    3. Unnava Lakshminarayana
    4. Kandukuri Veeresalingam
    Answer

    D. Kandukuri Veeresalingam

    It is a Telugu version of the Vicar of Wakefield style novel.

18. Kanyasulkam, a play against the bride-price system, was written by

    1. Veeresalingam
    2. Gurajada Apparao
    3. Raghupati Venkataratnam
    4. Gidugu Ramamurthy
    Answer

    B. Gurajada Apparao

    It satirises social evils in Telugu society.

19. The spoken Telugu (vyavaharika) language movement was led by

    1. Gurajada Apparao only
    2. Gidugu Venkata Ramamurthy
    3. Unnava Lakshminarayana
    4. Veeresalingam
    Answer

    B. Gidugu Venkata Ramamurthy

    He also worked on the Sora language.

20. The Telugu novel Malapalli, on caste problems, was written by

    1. Unnava Lakshminarayana
    2. Gidugu Ramamurthy
    3. Veeresalingam
    4. Gurajada Apparao
    Answer

    A. Unnava Lakshminarayana

    It deals with social reform and Dalit life.

21. The Hitakarini Samajam in Rajahmundry was linked with

    1. Periyar
    2. Raja Rammohan Roy
    3. Ranade
    4. Kandukuri Veeresalingam
    Answer

    D. Kandukuri Veeresalingam

    Veeresalingam used it for social service and reform.

22. What was the main difference between the Arya Samaj and the Brahmo Samaj?

    1. Arya Samaj was founded in Calcutta
    2. Brahmo Samaj opposed English education
    3. Arya Samaj looked to the Vedas; Brahmo Samaj used reason and many sources
    4. Arya Samaj supported idol worship
    Answer

    C. Arya Samaj looked to the Vedas; Brahmo Samaj used reason and many sources

    Dayananda considered the Vedas infallible; Roy valued the Upanishads and reason.

23. Phule's Gulamgiri compared the position of low castes to

    1. slavery in the United States
    2. sailors in the British navy
    3. serfs in medieval Europe
    4. soldiers of the Mughals
    Answer

    A. slavery in the United States

    The book was dedicated to the African-American struggle against slavery.

24. Why is the Self-Respect Movement called a non-Brahmin movement?

    1. It was run only by Brahmins
    2. It supported Sanskrit only
    3. It rejected Brahmin priestly dominance and caste hierarchy
    4. It was founded by the British
    Answer

    C. It rejected Brahmin priestly dominance and caste hierarchy

    Periyar promoted marriages without priests.

25. The Ramakrishna Mission differed from the Arya Samaj because it

    1. stressed service and universal spirit without shuddhi
    2. opposed English education
    3. demanded return to the Vedas
    4. was formed in Punjab
    Answer

    A. stressed service and universal spirit without shuddhi

    It stressed service to man as service to God.

26. The Prarthana Samaj leaders stressed

    1. a complete break from Hindu society
    2. only political reform
    3. social reform within a Hindu framework
    4. rejection of Western learning
    Answer

    C. social reform within a Hindu framework

    Ranade and Bhandarkar shaped its approach.

27. The Age of Consent Act of 1891 raised the age to

    1. 14 for girls
    2. 18 for boys
    3. 16 for girls
    4. 12 years for girls
    Answer

    D. 12 years for girls

    The Sarda Act of 1929 raised it further.

28. The Sarda Act of 1929 is about

    1. sati
    2. child marriage
    3. female infanticide
    4. widow remarriage
    Answer

    B. child marriage

    It fixed minimum marriage ages for girls and boys.

29. Why did Veeresalingam face opposition from conservatives?

    1. He taught only Sanskrit
    2. He opposed English education
    3. He demanded British rule
    4. He supported widow remarriage and opposed devadasi and child marriage
    Answer

    D. He supported widow remarriage and opposed devadasi and child marriage

    Orthodox groups tried to boycott his work.

30. Which pair is correctly matched?

    1. Periyar - SNDP
    2. Jyotirao Phule - Satyashodhak Samaj
    3. Ambedkar - Arya Samaj
    4. Narayana Guru - Self-Respect Movement
    Answer

    B. Jyotirao Phule - Satyashodhak Samaj

    Narayana Guru's body was SNDP; Periyar's was the Self-Respect Movement.

31. Statements: 1. He founded the Arya Samaj. 2. Rammohan Roy started the Brahmo Sabha. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Arya Samaj was founded by Dayananda Saraswati.

32. Statements: 1. Savitribai Phule helped run schools for girls in Pune. 2. Phule founded the Satyashodhak Samaj. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

33. Statements: 1. Periyar founded the SNDP. 2. Narayana Guru started the Self-Respect Movement. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    SNDP was Narayana Guru's; the Self-Respect Movement was Periyar's.

34. Statements: 1. The Theosophical Society was started in New York. 2. Its Indian headquarters was shifted to Adyar. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

35. Statements: 1. The Mahad Satyagraha was about entry to a temple. 2. Ambedkar led the Mahad Satyagraha of 1927. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    It was about the right to draw water from the tank.

36. Statements: 1. Gurajada Apparao wrote Rajasekhara Charitramu. 2. Gurajada Apparao wrote Kanyasulkam. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Rajasekhara Charitramu was by Veeresalingam.

37. Statements: 1. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa spoke at the 1893 Chicago Parliament. 2. Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    It was Vivekananda who spoke at Chicago.

38. Statements: 1. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan promoted modern education among Muslims. 2. The Deoband school stressed religious revival. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

39. Statements: 1. Bentinck's Regulation XVII (1829) banned sati. 2. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed before 1829. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.

40. Statements: 1. Dayananda Saraswati supported shuddhi. 2. DAV schools were started by the Arya Samaj. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

41. Statements: 1. Gidugu Ramamurthy worked on the Sora language. 2. He opposed the use of spoken Telugu in writing. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    He championed spoken Telugu.

42. Statements: 1. Ambedkar negotiated the Poona Pact of 1932. 2. Keshab Chandra Sen was a leader of the Brahmo Samaj. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

43. Statements: 1. Raja Rammohan Roy published the journal Mirat-ul-Akbar. 2. He opposed the freedom of the press. Which is/are correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Roy supported freedom of the press.