Guptas, Harsha and Kanauj

What to remember

• The Guptas (c. 320 to 550 CE) built a large empire with a gold-coin economy; their age saw major work in science, literature, art and temple building.
• Gupta rule used land grants and local officers, so power moved down to local chiefs, a step towards feudal society.
• Harsha (606 to 647 CE) ruled from Kanauj, and the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang left a full account of his rule and of Nalanda.

Rise of the Guptas

After the Kushans and Satavahanas, the Guptas rose in Magadha with Pataliputra as capital. Early rulers were Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha. Chandragupta I is the first great king; he took the title Maharajadhiraja and married Kumaradevi of the Licchavi family, which raised his power. The Gupta Era began c. 319-320 CE.

Samudragupta (c. 335 to 375 CE). His reign is known from the Allahabad Pillar inscription (Prayaga Prashasti), composed by his court poet Harishena in Sanskrit on an Ashokan pillar. It lists his wars. In the north, he uprooted several kings of the Ganga plain. In the south (Dakshinapatha), he defeated twelve kings but gave them back their kingdoms, after taking tribute. The list includes Vishnugopa of Kanchi and Hastivarman of Vengi, a ruler in the Andhra region. Border kings and tribes paid tribute. He performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice and issued coins showing a lyre (veena), showing his love of music. V. A. Smith called him the "Napoleon of India".

Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya" (c. 375 to 415 CE). He married his daughter Prabhavati Gupta to the Vakataka king Rudrasena II, which gave him a friendly power in the Deccan. He defeated the Shaka rulers of Gujarat and Malwa and made Ujjain a second capital. Gold, silver and copper coins were issued. The Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Hien visited in his time. The scholars known as the "Navaratnas" are traditionally linked to his court, including Kalidasa. The Mehrauli iron pillar of Delhi belongs to this period and shows high skill in metallurgy, as it has not rusted.

Later Guptas. Kumaragupta I founded the Nalanda monastery. Skandagupta fought the Hun invasion and repaired the Sudarshana lake. Later Hun chiefs Toramana and Mihirakula attacked; Mihirakula was beaten by Yashodharman and Baladitya. By c. 550 CE the empire had broken into smaller states.

Gupta administration and economy

The king was called Maharajadhiraja and held divine honours. Ministers and officers included kumaramatyas, a sandhivigrahika (war and peace) and a mahabaladhikrita (army head). The empire was divided into provinces (bhuktis) under uparikas, districts (vishayas) under vishayapatis, and villages under a gramika. Many chiefs ruled with local power and paid tribute. Land grants (agrahara, brahmadeya) to Brahmanas and temples included rights over the revenue and local rule. Officers were paid less in cash and more by land. This led to a feudal pattern.

The main coin was the gold dinara, finely made with the king's image and sometimes a sacrifice or a lyre. Silver coins were used in the west. After the decline of Roman trade, the volume of long-distance trade was lower, and village life became more self-supporting. Land revenue was about one-sixth. Merchant guilds were strong. Foreign visitors speak of mild punishment and little crime.

Society and religion

The varna order became firm. A large number of jatis appeared. Fa-Hien mentions the untouchable Chandalas, who lived outside towns. Women's status fell. The earliest known sati record is from an Eran inscription of 510 CE. Slaves were known, and the position of Shudras and peasants improved a little. Gupta kings were mainly Vaishnava, but they supported Buddhism and Jainism too. Temple building grew, and idol worship, the avatara idea and the Puranas became popular.

Why the Guptas declined. Weak later kings, loss of control over local chiefs, the cost of wars with the Huns and the rise of regional powers all weakened the empire. The grant of land with rights over its people made chiefs strong and kings weak. Trade and city life also became less lively, which lowered the income of the state.

Science, literature and art

Science. Aryabhata wrote the Aryabhatiya (499 CE): he explained the earth's rotation, the cause of eclipses, a good value of pi and the place-value method. Varahamihira wrote the Brihatsamhita and the Panchasiddhantika. Brahmagupta lived in a later age. Sushruta and Charaka were earlier medical texts; Vagbhata wrote on medicine. Zero as a number and the decimal place-value system were refined.

Literature. Kalidasa wrote the plays Abhijnanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvashiyam; the epics Raghuvamsha and Kumarasambhava; and the lyric Meghaduta. Others: Shudraka (Mrichchhakatika), Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa), Amarasimha (Amarakosha, a Sanskrit dictionary), and Vishnusharma (Panchatantra). The Puranas and the great Smritis (Narada, Brihaspati, Katyayana) took final form.

Art and architecture. Early stone and brick temples were built, such as the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the brick temple of Bhitargaon. Sarnath produced the fine seated Buddha. Ajanta cave paintings of later caves were done in this period. Udayagiri has a large Varaha (boar) carving.

Andhra in Gupta times

After the Satavahanas and Ikshvakus, the Salankayanas ruled from Vengi, and Hastivarman faced Samudragupta. Later the Vishnukundinas rose in the Andhra region. Their rule is remembered for rock-cut caves such as those at Undavalli, and for their support to both Brahmanical and Buddhist faiths.

Harsha and Kanauj

The Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) family ruled from Thanesar. Prabhakaravardhana's elder son Rajyavardhana was killed by Shashanka of Gauda (Bengal), and Harshavardhana came to the throne in 606 CE. He moved his capital to Kanauj. The Harsha Era is dated from 606 CE.

Wars. Harsha tried to expand to the south but was stopped on the Narmada by the Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II, as recorded in the Aihole inscription of Ravikirti. He defeated the Valabhi king and extended up to Bengal and Odisha after Shashanka's death.

Administration. It was less centralised than that of the Mauryas. The empire had bhuktis, vishayas and villages. Revenue was about one-sixth of produce. Hiuen Tsang says that income was divided in four parts (state, scholars, officers, and religious gifts). Land grants to Brahmanas and monasteries gave the beginnings of feudal rule. Officers were paid by land grants. The king toured the land and kept a large army.

Religion and learning. Harsha was a Shaiva at first and later favoured Mahayana Buddhism. A religious assembly was held every five years at Prayaga, where he gave away wealth. In 643 CE, a grand assembly was held at Kanauj in honour of Hiuen Tsang. Harsha wrote the plays Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda. His court poet Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.

Foreign travellers.

Hiuen Tsang studied at Nalanda under Shilabhadra and also travelled to the Andhra region and the far south, and wrote about the land and Buddhist centres. Fa-Hien's book is the Fo-kuo-ki.

Education. Nalanda (in Bihar, Gupta origin) was a great residential Buddhist university with a large library, students from many countries and teaching of Mahayana, the Vedas, logic, medicine and grammar. Valabhi in Gujarat was another well-known centre. Kanchi, Taxila and Varanasi were old centres. Monasteries lived from the revenue of villages granted to them.

Kanauj after Harsha. After Harsha's death there was no heir, and Kanauj stayed an important prize. Yashovarman ruled Kanauj in the 8th century. For centuries three powers, the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Palas and the Rashtrakutas, fought for it. This is known as the tripartite struggle.

Harsha's rule in brief. Harsha was the last great ruler of the north before the early medieval period, and he was tolerant of all faiths. He gave charity freely, built rest houses and hospitals, and is said to have heard the grievances of his subjects on tour. His empire broke up soon after his death because it depended on his own strength.

Exam traps

• The Allahabad Pillar inscription is by Harishena for Samudragupta; the Aihole inscription is by Ravikirti for Pulakeshin II.
• Samudragupta was not a Shaka-destroyer; Chandragupta II defeated the Shakas.
• Fa-Hien came in Gupta times; Hiuen Tsang in Harsha's time.
• Nalanda was founded in Gupta times (Kumaragupta I); Vikramashila was a later Pala foundation.
• The Aryabhatiya is by Aryabhata; Brihatsamhita by Varahamihira.
• Harsha lost to Pulakeshin II; he did not conquer the Deccan.
• Harsha's capital shifted from Thanesar to Kanauj.
• The Mehrauli iron pillar is Gupta-period metal work, not Mauryan.
• Kalidasa's Meghaduta is a lyric poem, not a play.

One-liners

• Chandragupta I married Kumaradevi.
• Samudragupta issued veena-type coins.
• The Gupta Era began about 319-320 CE.
• Prabhavati Gupta married a Vakataka king.
• The Sudarshana lake was repaired in Skandagupta's time.
• Hiuen Tsang's book is Si-yu-ki.
• Harsha wrote Nagananda.
• Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita.
• The Prayaga assembly of Harsha was held every five years.
• Shashanka was the ruler of Gauda.
• Nalanda was a great Buddhist university.
• Hastivarman of Vengi was a southern ruler listed by Samudragupta.

Practice questions

1. Who composed the Allahabad Pillar inscription?

   1. Kalidasa
   2. Banabhatta
   3. Ravikirti
   4. Harishena
   Answer

   D. Harishena

   Harishena was Samudragupta's court poet.

2. Chandragupta I married a princess of which family?

   1. Shaka
   2. Licchavi
   3. Vakataka
   4. Pallava
   Answer

   B. Licchavi

   Marriage to Kumaradevi of the Licchavi family raised Gupta power.

3. Who is called the Napoleon of India by V. A. Smith?

   1. Samudragupta
   2. Skandagupta
   3. Harsha
   4. Chandragupta II
   Answer

   A. Samudragupta

   Smith gave this name for his many conquests.

4. Which Chinese traveller visited India in Harsha's time?

   1. I-tsing only
   2. Hiuen Tsang
   3. Megasthenes
   4. Fa-Hien
   Answer

   B. Hiuen Tsang

   Hiuen Tsang's book is Si-yu-ki.

5. Who wrote the Harshacharita?

   1. Shudraka
   2. Vishakhadatta
   3. Banabhatta
   4. Kalidasa
   Answer

   C. Banabhatta

   Banabhatta was Harsha's court poet.

6. Who wrote the Aryabhatiya?

   1. Brahmagupta
   2. Charaka
   3. Varahamihira
   4. Aryabhata
   Answer

   D. Aryabhata

   Aryabhata wrote it in 499 CE.

7. What was the Gupta gold coin called?

   1. Pana
   2. Punch-marked silver
   3. Dinara
   4. Karshapana
   Answer

   C. Dinara

   The gold coin was called the dinara.

8. Which monastery university was founded in Gupta times in Bihar?

   1. Nalanda
   2. Valabhi
   3. Odantapuri
   4. Vikramashila
   Answer

   A. Nalanda

   Kumaragupta I is linked with Nalanda.

9. Which king defeated Harsha on the Narmada?

   1. Samudragupta
   2. Shashanka
   3. Mihirakula
   4. Pulakeshin II
   Answer

   D. Pulakeshin II

   The Aihole inscription records the Chalukya victory.

10. Which iron pillar shows Gupta skill in metallurgy?

    1. Sanchi
    2. Mehrauli
    3. Sarnath
    4. Besnagar
    Answer

    B. Mehrauli

    The Mehrauli pillar has resisted rust for centuries.

11. Which Chinese pilgrim visited in the time of Chandragupta II?

    1. Hiuen Tsang
    2. Marco Polo
    3. Fa-Hien
    4. I-tsing
    Answer

    C. Fa-Hien

    Fa-Hien wrote the Fo-kuo-ki.

12. Whom did Chandragupta II defeat to take Gujarat and Malwa?

    1. The Huns
    2. The Cholas
    3. The Kushans
    4. The Shakas
    Answer

    D. The Shakas

    He defeated the Western Kshatrapas.

13. Which Gupta king repaired the Sudarshana lake after a Hun attack?

    1. Skandagupta
    2. Samudragupta
    3. Kumaragupta I
    4. Chandragupta I
    Answer

    A. Skandagupta

    Skandagupta resisted the Huns and repaired the lake.

14. Prabhavati Gupta was married to a ruler of which dynasty?

    1. Chola
    2. Pallava
    3. Vakataka
    4. Chalukya
    Answer

    C. Vakataka

    She married Rudrasena II of the Vakatakas.

15. Which Hun ruler was defeated by Yashodharman?

    1. Menander
    2. Nahapana
    3. Toramana
    4. Mihirakula
    Answer

    D. Mihirakula

    Yashodharman and Baladitya beat Mihirakula.

16. Which Gupta-age text is a Sanskrit dictionary?

    1. Amarakosha
    2. Mrichchhakatika
    3. Panchatantra
    4. Brihatsamhita
    Answer

    A. Amarakosha

    Amarasimha wrote the Amarakosha.

17. Which pair is correctly matched?

    1. Kalidasa - Mudrarakshasa
    2. Vishakhadatta - Mudrarakshasa
    3. Shudraka - Meghaduta
    4. Banabhatta - Mrichchhakatika
    Answer

    B. Vishakhadatta - Mudrarakshasa

    Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa.

18. Which of these is a work of Harsha?

    1. Harshacharita
    2. Kadambari
    3. Raghuvamsha
    4. Nagananda
    Answer

    D. Nagananda

    Harsha himself wrote Nagananda.

19. The earliest known record of sati is from which Gupta-age inscription?

    1. Aihole
    2. Eran
    3. Nashik
    4. Junagadh
    Answer

    B. Eran

    The Eran inscription records it from 510 CE.

20. The Prayaga assembly of Harsha was held

    1. every year
    2. only once
    3. every ten years
    4. every five years
    Answer

    D. every five years

    He gave away wealth at Prayaga each five years.

21. Which Southern king of Vengi is listed in Samudragupta's inscription?

    1. Hastivarman
    2. Kubera
    3. Vishnugopa
    4. Mantaraja
    Answer

    A. Hastivarman

    Hastivarman of Vengi is in the list; Vishnugopa was of Kanchi.

22. The Gupta administrative units from large to small were

    1. janapada, gana, sangha
    2. ahara, nadu, ur
    3. bhukti, vishaya, grama
    4. grama, vishaya, bhukti
    Answer

    C. bhukti, vishaya, grama

    Provinces (bhuktis), districts (vishayas) and villages.

23. Which dynasty ruled from Vengi after the Satavahanas and Ikshvakus?

    1. Pushyabhutis
    2. Rashtrakutas
    3. Salankayanas
    4. Guptas
    Answer

    C. Salankayanas

    The Salankayanas ruled the Vengi region.

24. The Vishnukundinas of Andhra are remembered for

    1. Sanchi gateways
    2. rock-cut caves such as at Undavalli
    3. Brick temple of Deogarh
    4. the Ajanta paintings of the Mauryas
    Answer

    B. rock-cut caves such as at Undavalli

    Undavalli caves are associated with the Vishnukundinas.

25. Who ruled Gauda and killed Harsha's brother Rajyavardhana?

    1. Shashanka
    2. Yashovarman
    3. Mihirakula
    4. Pulakeshin II
    Answer

    A. Shashanka

    Shashanka of Gauda killed Rajyavardhana.

26. Which text of Hiuen Tsang describes Nalanda and Harsha's rule?

    1. Si-yu-ki
    2. Indika
    3. Fo-kuo-ki
    4. Mahabhashya
    Answer

    A. Si-yu-ki

    Si-yu-ki means records of the western regions.

27. The Dashavatara temple is located at

    1. Sarnath
    2. Bhitargaon
    3. Udayagiri
    4. Deogarh
    Answer

    D. Deogarh

    The Dashavatara temple is at Deogarh.

28. Statements: 1. Samudragupta restored the southern kings after defeating them. 2. He abolished all tributes. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    He took tribute and returned the kingdoms.

29. Statements: 1. Fa-Hien wrote Si-yu-ki. 2. Hiuen Tsang studied at Nalanda. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Fa-Hien wrote Fo-kuo-ki.

30. Statements: 1. Harsha's capital was Kanauj. 2. Harsha conquered the whole Deccan. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Pulakeshin II stopped him on the Narmada.

31. Statements: 1. The Guptas used land grants to Brahmanas. 2. Their dinaras were of gold. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are standard features of Gupta rule.

32. Statements: 1. Nalanda was founded in Pala times. 2. It taught Mahayana, logic and medicine. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Nalanda's origin is in Gupta times.

33. Statements: 1. The Kanauj assembly was held for Hiuen Tsang. 2. Harsha used the Gupta Era. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Harsha used his own era from 606 CE.

34. Match the pair correctly:

    1. Brahmagupta - Aryabhatiya
    2. Aryabhata - Panchasiddhantika
    3. Vagbhata - Surya Siddhanta
    4. Varahamihira - Brihatsamhita
    Answer

    D. Varahamihira - Brihatsamhita

    Varahamihira wrote the Brihatsamhita.

35. What was the main effect of land grants in Gupta times?

    1. End of varna
    2. Growth of a salaried army
    3. Rise of local chiefs and a feudal pattern
    4. More trade with Rome
    Answer

    C. Rise of local chiefs and a feudal pattern

    Land grants with rights gave strength to local chiefs.

36. Which cause is not linked to the fall of the Gupta empire?

    1. Weak successors
    2. Rise of feudatories
    3. Rise of the Mauryas
    4. Hun invasions
    Answer

    C. Rise of the Mauryas

    The Mauryas fell earlier.

37. Which Gupta king married his daughter into the Vakataka family?

    1. Samudragupta
    2. Chandragupta II
    3. Skandagupta
    4. Harsha
    Answer

    B. Chandragupta II

    It was an alliance with the Vakatakas.

38. Which educational centre was in Gujarat?

    1. Vikramashila
    2. Nalanda
    3. Odantapuri
    4. Valabhi
    Answer

    D. Valabhi

    Valabhi was a Gujarat centre of learning.

39. Which of the following was part of the later tripartite struggle for Kanauj?

    1. Kushans, Shakas and Satavahanas
    2. Guptas, Pallavas and Cholas
    3. Mauryas, Sungas and Kanvas
    4. Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas
    Answer

    D. Gurjara-Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas

    The three fought for control of Kanauj.

40. The Gupta Era was founded about

    1. 78 CE
    2. 606 CE
    3. 319-320 CE
    4. 57 BCE
    Answer

    C. 319-320 CE

    It began with Chandragupta I c. 319-320 CE.

41. Statements: 1. Samudragupta's coins show a lyre. 2. Skandagupta founded the Gupta Era. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The era began with Chandragupta I.

42. Statements: 1. Kalidasa wrote Meghaduta. 2. Amarasimha wrote Panchatantra. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Panchatantra is by Vishnusharma; Amarasimha wrote the Amarakosha.

43. Statements: 1. Hiuen Tsang described Harsha's rule. 2. Fa-Hien visited India in Harsha's time. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Fa-Hien came in Chandragupta II's time.