Independent India

What to remember

• Free India first had to hold together. Integration of over five hundred princely states, the shock of Partition and the Kashmir conflict came before any development plan.
• The Constitution and linguistic reorganisation shaped the Union. The Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950; language-based states, beginning with Andhra in 1953, changed the map of India.
• Mixed economy and non-alignment were the guiding policies. Planning, public sector industry and an independent foreign policy defined the Nehru era and its immediate aftermath.

Integration of princely states

On 15 August 1947 the British paramountcy lapsed. Princely states, which covered about two-fifths of the land, could join India or Pakistan or, in theory, stay independent.

• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Minister of States) and V. P. Menon (Secretary of the States Department) led the integration.
• Rulers were asked to sign an Instrument of Accession giving defence, external affairs and communications to the Union. Almost all signed by 15 August 1947.
• Rulers were offered privy purses and the right to keep personal property. Privy purses were later ended by the 26th Amendment (1971).

Three difficult cases:

After the first merger, small states were merged into larger units or made into Part B states and Part C states. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 finally ended the A/B/C categories.

Hyderabad's merger is important for Andhra: the Telugu-speaking Telangana region joined the Union after 1948, which later led to debate on the future of Telugu speaking people in a single state.

Linguistic reorganisation

During the freedom struggle the Congress promised states based on language (Nagpur 1920 resolution). After 1947 the leaders feared disunity and set up commissions:

• Dar Commission (1948): advised against language as the sole basis.
• JVP Committee (1948): Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya; also cautious.
• Potti Sriramulu fasted for a separate Telugu-speaking state of Andhra and died on 15 December 1952. Public anger followed. Andhra State was formed on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu areas of Madras, with Kurnool as its capital and Tanguturi Prakasam as its first Chief Minister.
• States Reorganisation Commission (SRC, 1953): members were Fazl Ali (chair), K. M. Panikkar and H. N. Kunzru. It accepted language as a major basis, along with unity and security.
• States Reorganisation Act, 1956: created 14 states and 6 union territories. Andhra Pradesh was formed on 1 November 1956 by merging Andhra State with the Telangana region of Hyderabad; Hyderabad became the capital.
• Later: Bombay State was divided into Maharashtra and Gujarat (1960); Punjab was divided into Punjab and Haryana (1966); Telangana was formed as a separate state from Andhra Pradesh in 2014 under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014.

The Constitution

• Constituent Assembly first met on 9 December 1946; Dr Rajendra Prasad was its president; Dr B. R. Ambedkar chaired the Drafting Committee (set up on 29 August 1947).
• The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950 (Republic Day).
• The Objectives Resolution (moved by Nehru, December 1946) guided the Preamble.
• Sources: Government of India Act 1935 (federal scheme), British practice (parliamentary system), the US (fundamental rights, judicial review), Ireland (Directive Principles), Canada (strong centre) and others.
• Key features: sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic (the words "socialist" and "secular" were added in 1976 by the 42nd Amendment); universal adult franchise; Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles; independent judiciary.
• The first general election took place in 1951-52 under Chief Election Commissioner Sukumar Sen.
• Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) laid down the doctrine of "basic structure".

Economic policy

Mixed economy. Both public and private sectors were allowed. The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 and 1956 reserved key industries (arms, atomic energy, railways, heavy machinery) for the state.

Planning. The Planning Commission was set up in 1950 (Nehru as chairman). It was replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015.

• Land reforms: abolition of zamindari, tenancy reforms, ceilings.
• Green Revolution (from the mid-1960s) raised wheat and rice output in selected regions, linked with high yielding varieties and irrigation.
• White Revolution (Operation Flood) developed the dairy sector.
• Bank nationalisation in 1969 (14 banks) widened credit to rural and small borrowers.
• Reforms of 1991 opened the economy through liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation.

Andhra examples: Nagarjuna Sagar and Tungabhadra projects were among the early multipurpose schemes; Visakhapatnam became a centre of shipbuilding and steel.

Foreign policy

Principles were shaped largely by Nehru:

• Non-alignment: staying outside the US and Soviet blocs. The Non-Aligned Movement was founded at Belgrade in 1961 by Nehru, Tito, Nasser, Nkrumah and Sukarno.
• Panchsheel (1954) with China: five principles of peaceful coexistence.
• Bandung Conference (1955): Afro-Asian solidarity.
• Support for decolonisation and opposition to apartheid.
• India joined the Commonwealth but stayed a republic.

Key events:

Nation-building challenges

Three challenges stood together in the first decades.

• 1. National unity. India had to build one nation out of many languages, religions and regions. Partition, refugees and riots tested the new state. The Constitution chose a federal structure with a strong Centre, and a secular state that treats all faiths equally.
• 2. Democracy. Many observers doubted that a poor, largely illiterate country could run free elections. Universal adult franchise from the start, an independent Election Commission and a free press proved them wrong. The first three general elections gave the Congress a large majority, but opposition parties also grew.
• 3. Development. Hunger and poverty were severe. The state took a leading role through planning, public sector steel plants (Bhilai, Rourkela, Durgapur), river valley projects and community development blocks.

Language and the official language question. Hindi in the Devanagari script was made the official language of the Union, with English continuing for official work for fifteen years. Protests, especially in the south, led later to the Official Languages Act of 1963 and the assurance that English would continue as an associate language. The Three Language Formula was a school-level attempt to balance regional and national needs.

Social policy. Untouchability was abolished by Article 17. Reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in legislatures and jobs was provided. The Hindu Code Bills of the 1950s reformed marriage, inheritance and adoption law for Hindu women.

Other post-independence changes. French territories such as Pondicherry were handed over to India in 1954 (legal treaty followed later); Goa, Daman and Diu were freed from the Portuguese by military action in 1961; Sikkim joined India in 1975.

Federalism and Centre-state relations. The Constitution divides powers into Union, State and Concurrent Lists. Financial arrangements were guided by Finance Commissions, set up every five years. Demands for more state autonomy and the rise of regional parties were a feature of later decades. The creation of new states from the Telugu country shows how a language movement can reshape the federation.

Exam traps

• 1. Constitution adopted (26 Nov 1949) vs came into force (26 Jan 1950).
• 2. Andhra State (1 Oct 1953) vs Andhra Pradesh (1 Nov 1956).
• 3. Dar Commission (1948) vs SRC (1953); Fazl Ali chaired the SRC.
• 4. Patel integrated princely states; Menon was the Secretary of the States Department.
• 5. Operation Polo is Hyderabad; do not link it with Junagadh.
• 6. Panchsheel (1954) is with China; Tashkent (1966) with Pakistan; Simla (1972) also with Pakistan.
• 7. Mahalanobis model is the Second Plan; Harrod-Domar is the First.
• 8. Drafting Committee chair is Ambedkar; Constituent Assembly president is Rajendra Prasad.

One-liners

• 1. The Instrument of Accession handed over defence, external affairs and communications.
• 2. Potti Sriramulu fasted unto death in 1952 for Andhra.
• 3. Kurnool was the first capital of Andhra State.
• 4. Tanguturi Prakasam was first Chief Minister of Andhra State.
• 5. The SRC report was submitted in 1955.
• 6. The States Reorganisation Act was passed in 1956.
• 7. The Preamble words "socialist" and "secular" were added by the 42nd Amendment.
• 8. The Planning Commission was set up in 1950.
• 9. The First Plan emphasised agriculture.
• 10. The Non-Aligned Movement began at Belgrade in 1961.
• 11. Panchsheel was signed in 1954.
• 12. The Simla Agreement was signed in 1972.

Practice questions

1. Who was the Minister of States who led the integration of princely states?

   1. Rajendra Prasad
   2. Jawaharlal Nehru
   3. C. Rajagopalachari
   4. Vallabhbhai Patel
   Answer

   D. Vallabhbhai Patel

   Patel headed the States Department; V. P. Menon was its Secretary.

2. Which police action led to the merger of Hyderabad with India?

   1. Operation Blue Star
   2. Operation Polo
   3. Operation Vijay
   4. Operation Flood
   Answer

   B. Operation Polo

   Operation Polo took place in September 1948.

3. The Instrument of Accession gave the Union control over

   1. Education, health and police
   2. Land revenue and agriculture
   3. Courts and local government
   4. Defence, external affairs and communications
   Answer

   D. Defence, external affairs and communications

   These three subjects were transferred by accession.

4. Who fasted unto death in 1952 demanding a separate Telugu-speaking state?

   1. Tanguturi Prakasam
   2. Potti Sriramulu
   3. Pattabhi Sitaramayya
   4. N. G. Ranga
   Answer

   B. Potti Sriramulu

   His death on 15 December 1952 led to the formation of Andhra State.

5. Andhra State was formed on

   1. 15 August 1947
   2. 1 November 1956
   3. 26 January 1950
   4. 1 October 1953
   Answer

   D. 1 October 1953

   It was carved out of the Telugu areas of Madras State.

6. Which city was the first capital of Andhra State?

   1. Vijayawada
   2. Hyderabad
   3. Kurnool
   4. Guntur
   Answer

   C. Kurnool

   Kurnool served as capital from 1953 until 1956.

7. Who was the first Chief Minister of Andhra State?

   1. Tanguturi Prakasam
   2. Bezawada Gopala Reddy
   3. N. Sanjiva Reddy
   4. Neelam Sanjiva Rao
   Answer

   A. Tanguturi Prakasam

   Prakasam, known as Andhra Kesari, led the first government.

8. Andhra Pradesh was formed on

   1. 2 June 2014
   2. 1 November 1956
   3. 1 October 1953
   4. 26 January 1950
   Answer

   B. 1 November 1956

   Andhra State merged with Telangana under the States Reorganisation Act.

9. Who chaired the States Reorganisation Commission of 1953?

   1. K. M. Panikkar
   2. H. N. Kunzru
   3. B. R. Ambedkar
   4. Fazl Ali
   Answer

   D. Fazl Ali

   Panikkar and Kunzru were the other two members.

10. Who chaired the Drafting Committee of the Constitution?

    1. Rajendra Prasad
    2. Jawaharlal Nehru
    3. Sardar Patel
    4. B. R. Ambedkar
    Answer

    D. B. R. Ambedkar

    Rajendra Prasad was president of the Constituent Assembly.

11. The Constitution of India came into force on

    1. 15 August 1947
    2. 26 January 1950
    3. 9 December 1946
    4. 26 November 1949
    Answer

    B. 26 January 1950

    26 November 1949 is the date of adoption.

12. The first general election of independent India was held in

    1. 1951-52
    2. 1947-48
    3. 1956-57
    4. 1962
    Answer

    A. 1951-52

    It was conducted under Chief Election Commissioner Sukumar Sen.

13. Which Amendment added the words 'socialist' and 'secular' to the Preamble?

    1. 24th Amendment
    2. 44th Amendment
    3. 42nd Amendment
    4. 1st Amendment
    Answer

    C. 42nd Amendment

    The 42nd Amendment was passed in 1976.

14. The doctrine of 'basic structure' arose from which case?

    1. Minerva Mills case
    2. Kesavananda Bharati case
    3. Shankari Prasad case
    4. Golaknath case
    Answer

    B. Kesavananda Bharati case

    The 1973 judgment limited Parliament's power to amend.

15. Which Plan stressed heavy industry under the Mahalanobis model?

    1. Second Five Year Plan
    2. Fourth Five Year Plan
    3. First Five Year Plan
    4. Third Five Year Plan
    Answer

    A. Second Five Year Plan

    The Second Plan (1956-61) gave priority to basic industries.

16. Where was the Non-Aligned Movement founded in 1961?

    1. Bandung
    2. New Delhi
    3. Cairo
    4. Belgrade
    Answer

    D. Belgrade

    Nehru, Tito and Nasser were among the founders.

17. Panchsheel, the five principles of peaceful coexistence, was agreed with

    1. Soviet Union
    2. Pakistan
    3. China
    4. Sri Lanka
    Answer

    C. China

    The agreement of 1954 is linked to Nehru and Zhou Enlai.

18. Which agreement was signed after the 1971 war?

    1. Tashkent Declaration
    2. Simla Agreement
    3. Indus Waters Treaty
    4. Panchsheel
    Answer

    B. Simla Agreement

    It was signed in 1972 by Indira Gandhi and Z. A. Bhutto.

19. Which agreement of 1966 ended the 1965 India-Pakistan war?

    1. Poona Pact
    2. Lahore Declaration
    3. Simla Agreement
    4. Tashkent Declaration
    Answer

    D. Tashkent Declaration

    It was signed in Tashkent under Soviet mediation.

20. Why did the Dar Commission of 1948 not support states based only on language?

    1. It believed no state should be formed
    2. It wanted to keep British provinces unchanged
    3. It feared such states might harm national unity after Partition
    4. It proposed only union territories
    Answer

    C. It feared such states might harm national unity after Partition

    Leaders feared fragmentation soon after Partition.

21. Why was Junagadh's accession to Pakistan not accepted?

    1. Its population was mostly Hindu and the people opposed it
    2. It had no ruler
    3. It was too small to matter
    4. It lay far from India
    Answer

    A. Its population was mostly Hindu and the people opposed it

    A plebiscite in 1948 favoured India.

22. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 ended which classification of states?

    1. Part A, B and C states
    2. Hill states
    3. Princely agencies
    4. Presidency towns
    Answer

    A. Part A, B and C states

    It created 14 states and 6 union territories.

23. The Planning Commission set up in 1950 was chaired by

    1. The President
    2. The Chief Justice
    3. The Prime Minister
    4. The Finance Minister
    Answer

    C. The Prime Minister

    Nehru was its first chairman.

24. What was a main aim of the nationalisation of 14 banks in 1969?

    1. End all private enterprise
    2. Close village markets
    3. Reduce foreign trade
    4. Widen credit to rural and small borrowers
    Answer

    D. Widen credit to rural and small borrowers

    The banks were brought under public control to serve wider groups.

25. Which Constitutional amendment of 1971 ended the privy purses of former rulers?

    1. 1st Amendment
    2. 26th Amendment
    3. 73rd Amendment
    4. 42nd Amendment
    Answer

    B. 26th Amendment

    It withdrew recognition of rulers and their privy purses.

26. Operation Flood is associated with

    1. River linking
    2. Steel output
    3. Dairy development
    4. Wheat production
    Answer

    C. Dairy development

    It is known as the White Revolution.

27. The Objectives Resolution moved by Nehru in 1946 influenced the

    1. Tenth Schedule
    2. Preamble
    3. Seventh Schedule
    4. Emergency provisions
    Answer

    B. Preamble

    The Resolution declared the aims of the future Constitution.

28. The Telangana region joined the Indian Union mainly after

    1. Operation Polo of 1948
    2. The Tashkent Declaration
    3. The Simla Agreement
    4. The Panchsheel treaty
    Answer

    A. Operation Polo of 1948

    Hyderabad state, which included Telangana, merged after the police action.

29. The 1991 economic reforms are summarised as

    1. Planning and import substitution
    2. Nationalisation and licensing
    3. Land ceilings and tenancy
    4. Liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation
    Answer

    D. Liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation

    They opened the economy to private and foreign investment.

30. Consider the statements on princely states. 1. Rulers kept their privy purses after integration. 2. All rulers signed accession only after January 1950.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Almost all signed by 15 August 1947; privy purses ended later.

31. Consider the statements on Andhra. 1. Andhra State was formed in 1953. 2. Andhra Pradesh was formed in 1956 by merging Andhra State with Telangana.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

32. Consider the statements on the Constitution. 1. It was adopted on 26 November 1949. 2. It was adopted on 26 January 1950.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    26 January 1950 is the date of commencement.

33. Consider the statements on linguistic states. 1. The SRC accepted language as an important basis. 2. Bombay State was divided in 1960.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Maharashtra and Gujarat were formed in 1960.

34. Consider the statements on Hyderabad. 1. The Nizam wished to stay independent. 2. Operation Polo took place in 1948.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

35. Consider the statements on the Planning Commission. 1. It was set up in 1950. 2. It was replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are correct.

36. Consider the statements on foreign policy. 1. India joined the Non-Aligned Movement as a founding member. 2. Panchsheel was signed with Pakistan.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Panchsheel was with China.

37. Consider the statements on Kashmir. 1. The matter was first taken to the UN by Pakistan. 2. Maharaja Hari Singh signed an accession in 1947.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    India took the matter to the UN.

38. Match: (1) Dar Commission (2) JVP Committee (3) SRC (4) Drafting Committee

    1. 1947, 1953, 1948, 1948
    2. 1953, 1948, 1947, 1948
    3. 1948, 1947, 1948, 1953
    4. 1948, 1948, 1953, 1947
    Answer

    D. 1948, 1948, 1953, 1947

    Dar and JVP were in 1948, SRC in 1953, the Drafting Committee in 1947.

39. Match plan and emphasis: (1) First (2) Second (3) Green Revolution (4) Operation Flood

    1. Dairy, wheat, agriculture, heavy industry
    2. Heavy industry, agriculture, dairy, wheat and rice
    3. Wheat, dairy, heavy industry, agriculture
    4. Agriculture, heavy industry, wheat and rice yields, dairy
    Answer

    D. Agriculture, heavy industry, wheat and rice yields, dairy

    First Plan stressed agriculture, Second heavy industry.

40. Match: (1) Panchsheel (2) Tashkent (3) Simla (4) Bandung

    1. 1966, 1972, 1955, 1954
    2. 1954, 1966, 1972, 1955
    3. 1955, 1954, 1966, 1972
    4. 1972, 1966, 1954, 1955
    Answer

    B. 1954, 1966, 1972, 1955

    The four dates are 1954, 1966, 1972 and 1955.

41. Consider the statements on the Constituent Assembly. 1. Rajendra Prasad was its president. 2. Ambedkar was its president.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Ambedkar chaired the Drafting Committee.

42. Consider the statements on Potti Sriramulu. 1. His death led to the creation of Kerala. 2. He died after a fast in 1952.

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    It led to Andhra State.

43. Punjab was divided into Punjab and Haryana in

    1. 1972
    2. 1960
    3. 1956
    4. 1966
    Answer

    D. 1966

    Haryana was carved out on a linguistic basis in 1966.

44. The Bangladesh war of 1971 was followed by which agreement?

    1. Tashkent Declaration
    2. Simla Agreement
    3. Poona Pact
    4. Panchsheel
    Answer

    B. Simla Agreement

    It set out principles for relations with Pakistan.

45. The land reform measure that removed intermediaries between the state and tillers was

    1. Privy purse
    2. Operation Flood
    3. Bank nationalisation
    4. Abolition of zamindari
    Answer

    D. Abolition of zamindari

    Zamindari abolition ended the intermediary system.