Mahajanapadas, Jainism, Buddhism, Magadha and Mauryas

What to remember

• From c. 600 BCE, 16 large states (Mahajanapadas) arose; Magadha won the contest through its iron, rivers, elephants and strong kings.
• Jainism and Buddhism were reform movements against costly rituals and birth-based rank; both taught non-violence and used the people's language.
• The Mauryan empire (c. 321 BCE onwards) built a centralised state; Ashoka's dhamma was a moral and social policy, not a new religion.

The Mahajanapadas

In the sixth century BCE, iron tools, new farming land and growing towns led to bigger states. Early Buddhist books list 16 Mahajanapadas: Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Machchha, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja. Most were monarchies. Vajji and Malla were gana-sanghas (rule by a group of chiefs, sometimes called republics). In these, an assembly met and decided matters.

Assaka (Ashmaka) lay on the Godavari in the south and is the only one of the sixteen located so far south. Its capital is given as Potana or Podana.

Rise of Magadha

Magadha was helped by rich iron mines, fertile land between the Ganga and Son, and rivers for transport. It also had elephants for war.

Haryanka dynasty. Bimbisara won Anga and made marriage alliances (with Kosala and a Vaishali princess). He had a good tax and officer system. Ajatashatru fought Kosala and the Vajji confederacy, and used war machines (a catapult and a chariot with blades). Udayin built a new capital at Pataliputra (at the meeting of the Ganga and Son).

Shishunaga dynasty. Shishunaga ended Avanti's power. The second Buddhist council was held in the time of his successor.

Nanda dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda is often called the first great empire builder of the Ganga plain, with a huge army. The last Nanda king, Dhana Nanda, was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya with help from Kautilya (Chanakya).

Jainism

Jain tradition has 24 Tirthankaras. Rishabhanatha is the first, Parshvanatha the 23rd and Mahavira the 24th. Mahavira (Vardhamana) was born near Vaishali into a Kshatriya family, left home at about thirty, gained supreme knowledge (kevala jnana) after years of hard practice and died at Pavapuri.

Parshvanatha taught four vows; Mahavira added the fifth, brahmacharya. The five vows are ahimsa, satya, asteya, aparigraha and brahmacharya. The path is the Three Jewels (Triratna): right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. Jainism denies a creator god and teaches that every living thing has a soul, and that karma binds the soul. Its main doctrines are anekantavada (many-sided truth) and syadvada. Jain teachings are in Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi), and the canon is called the Agamas.

A split into Digambara (sky-clad) and Svetambara (white-clad) is linked to a long famine and the move of Bhadrabahu to the south. The first council was at Pataliputra (leader Sthulabhadra) and the second at Valabhi. Jainism spread to Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan with help from kings and merchants. Other schools of the age, such as the Ajivikas led by Makkhali Gosala, taught strict fate (niyati), and Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha gave them caves.

Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama was born at Lumbini (in present Nepal) to Suddhodana and Mahamaya of the Shakya clan, with Kapilavastu as home. After leaving home, he gained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree. His first sermon at Sarnath is called Dharmachakra Pravartana. He died at Kushinagar.

Teaching. Four Noble Truths: life has suffering (dukkha); suffering has a cause (desire); it can end (nirvana); and there is a path to end it. That path is the Eightfold Path (right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration), which is a Middle Path between luxury and harsh self-denial. The three jewels are Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. Buddhism rejects a creator god and the authority of the Vedas and the caste hierarchy. It teaches impermanence (anicca) and no fixed self (anatta).

Texts. The Tripitaka: Vinaya Pitaka (monk rules), Sutta Pitaka (sermons) and Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy). They are in Pali.

Four councils

The fourth council is linked to the Mahayana and Hinayana split. Mahayana (Great Vehicle) worships Buddha as a god, with images and Bodhisattvas. Theravada keeps the early teachings.

Buddhism in Andhra. Andhra has famous Buddhist sites: Amaravati (great stupa, sculpted marble panels), Nagarjunakonda, Bhattiprolu (early relic caskets), Salihundam, Thotlakonda, Ghantasala and Jaggayyapeta. Under the Satavahanas and the Ikshvakus these centres grew, and Acharya Nagarjuna, founder of the Madhyamika school, is linked with the Andhra region.

Mauryan empire

Founding. Chandragupta Maurya, with Kautilya's help, overthrew the Nandas c. 321 BCE. He fought Seleucus Nicator, who gave up his eastern provinces, and in return received 500 elephants. Megasthenes came as ambassador and wrote Indika, now known only from quotes in other books. Bindusara, his son, extended the empire to the south. He bore the title Amitraghata (slayer of enemies); Greek writers called him Amitrochates.

Ashoka (c. 268 to 232 BCE). He fought the Kalinga war about eight years after his coronation (c. 261 BCE). The huge loss of life, described in the 13th Major Rock Edict, led him to give up conquest by war and choose dhamma-vijaya (conquest by dhamma). He is known mainly from his inscriptions in Prakrit, written in Brahmi script (Kharosthi in the northwest, Greek and Aramaic in Afghanistan). James Prinsep read Brahmi in 1837. In the Maski edict, the name Ashoka appears. In Andhra, Yerragudi has Ashokan rock edicts.

Administration. Kautilya's Arthashastra lists seven parts of the state (saptanga): king, ministers, territory, fort, treasury, army and ally. The empire had provinces under princes (kumaras): Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali and Suvarnagiri. Officers: mahamatras, rajukas, pradeshikas and yuktas. City administration by Megasthenes' account used six committees of five members each. The army was very large and a spy system existed. Land tax was about one-fourth of produce and there was a state-owned farm land (sita). Roads such as the royal road from Pataliputra to Taxila were built.

Art and architecture. Palaces of polished stone, polished stone pillars (the Sarnath lion capital became the national emblem), stupas (early Sanchi), and rock-cut caves such as the Barabar caves for Ajivika monks. Folk art includes the Didarganj Yakshi.

Ashoka's dhamma

Ashoka's edicts were cut on rocks and pillars at the edges of the empire and near trade routes so that many people could see and hear them. They were read out in local scripts, which shows how far the state wished to reach ordinary people. In them he speaks to his subjects as a father to children.

Dhamma was a code of conduct for all the people, not a new religion. Its main points: obedience to parents and elders, respect to teachers, generosity to brahmanas and sramanas (ascetics), humane treatment of servants and slaves, truth, non-violence to living beings, and tolerance of all sects. To make it work, he appointed dhamma-mahamatras and used dhamma-yatras instead of pleasure tours. He also built roads, rest houses, wells and hospitals for man and animal. He sent missions to Sri Lanka (his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra), and to the Greek kingdoms of the west. He also banned animal sacrifice and cut down the killing of animals in the royal kitchen.

Decline. After Ashoka the empire weakened due to weak successors, financial strain and provincial revolts. The last king, Brihadratha, was killed by his commander Pushyamitra Sunga c. 185 BCE.

Exam traps

• Vajji and Malla were gana-sanghas; Magadha, Kosala, Avanti and Vatsa were monarchies.
• Rajagriha was the first Magadhan capital; Pataliputra was founded later by Udayin.
• Parshvanatha (23rd) taught four vows; Mahavira (24th) added brahmacharya.
• The Digambara and Svetambara split is a Jain event; the Mahayana and Hinayana split is Buddhist.
• The fourth Buddhist council was under Kanishka; the third under Ashoka.
• Lumbini is the birthplace, Bodh Gaya enlightenment, Sarnath first sermon, Kushinagar death.
• Dhamma is not Buddhism itself; Ashoka asked for tolerance of all sects.
• Megasthenes served at Chandragupta's court; Bindusara and Ashoka had Greek contacts too.
• The Arthashastra is by Kautilya (a Mauryan-era text of statecraft); Indika is by Megasthenes.

One-liners

• The 13th Rock Edict describes the Kalinga war.
• Ashoka calls himself "Devanampiya Piyadasi".
• Mahavira was born near Vaishali and died at Pavapuri.
• The Tripitaka is in Pali.
• Assaka lay on the Godavari.
• The Sarnath lion capital is India's state emblem.
• Chandragupta defeated Seleucus Nicator.
• The Barabar caves were given to the Ajivikas.
• Amaravati is a major Buddhist stupa site in Andhra.
• The Brihadratha, last Mauryan, was killed by Pushyamitra Sunga.
• Kautilya wrote on seven elements of the state.
• Ashoka's missionaries to Sri Lanka were Mahendra and Sanghamitra.

Practice questions

1. Which Mahajanapada lay on the Godavari river?

   1. Assaka
   2. Chedi
   3. Avanti
   4. Kamboja
   Answer

   A. Assaka

   Assaka (Ashmaka) was the southern Mahajanapada on the Godavari.

2. What was the capital of Kosala?

   1. Taxila
   2. Shravasti
   3. Champa
   4. Kaushambi
   Answer

   B. Shravasti

   Shravasti was the Kosalan capital.

3. Who was the 24th Jain Tirthankara?

   1. Neminatha
   2. Parshvanatha
   3. Rishabhanatha
   4. Mahavira
   Answer

   D. Mahavira

   Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara.

4. Where did the Buddha give his first sermon?

   1. Kushinagar
   2. Bodh Gaya
   3. Sarnath
   4. Lumbini
   Answer

   C. Sarnath

   The first sermon, Dharmachakra Pravartana, was at Sarnath.

5. Which text is the main source for Mauryan statecraft by Kautilya?

   1. Mudrarakshasa
   2. Indika
   3. Rajatarangini
   4. Arthashastra
   Answer

   D. Arthashastra

   Kautilya wrote the Arthashastra.

6. The Kalinga war is described in which edict of Ashoka?

   1. Pillar Edict 7
   2. Rock Edict 13
   3. Minor Rock Edict
   4. Rock Edict 1
   Answer

   B. Rock Edict 13

   Major Rock Edict 13 speaks of the Kalinga war.

7. Who wrote the book Indika?

   1. Kautilya
   2. Fa-Hien
   3. Megasthenes
   4. Ashvaghosha
   Answer

   C. Megasthenes

   Megasthenes, ambassador at the Mauryan court, wrote Indika.

8. The Three Jewels of Jainism are

   1. right faith, right knowledge, right conduct
   2. truth, love, peace
   3. karma, bhakti, jnana
   4. Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha
   Answer

   A. right faith, right knowledge, right conduct

   The Triratna of Jainism are right faith, knowledge and conduct.

9. The Tripitaka is written in which language?

   1. Telugu
   2. Sanskrit
   3. Tamil
   4. Pali
   Answer

   D. Pali

   The Buddhist canon is in Pali.

10. Who founded the Mauryan empire?

    1. Chandragupta Maurya
    2. Brihadratha
    3. Bindusara
    4. Ashoka
    Answer

    A. Chandragupta Maurya

    Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nandas.

11. Which city did Udayin make the capital of Magadha?

    1. Ujjain
    2. Pataliputra
    3. Rajagriha
    4. Vaishali
    Answer

    B. Pataliputra

    Udayin founded Pataliputra as the capital.

12. Which famous Buddhist stupa is in Andhra?

    1. Sanchi
    2. Sarnath
    3. Amaravati
    4. Bharhut
    Answer

    C. Amaravati

    Amaravati is a major stupa in Andhra.

13. Which pair is correct?

    1. Gandhara - Kaushambi
    2. Vajji - Vaishali
    3. Avanti - Shravasti
    4. Vatsa - Taxila
    Answer

    B. Vajji - Vaishali

    Vaishali was the Vajji capital.

14. Which council was held under Ashoka at Pataliputra?

    1. Fourth Buddhist council
    2. Second Buddhist council
    3. First Buddhist council
    4. Third Buddhist council
    Answer

    D. Third Buddhist council

    The third council was led by Moggaliputta Tissa.

15. Which Jain Tirthankara taught four vows before Mahavira?

    1. Rishabhanatha
    2. Neminatha
    3. Parshvanatha
    4. Ajitanatha
    Answer

    C. Parshvanatha

    Parshvanatha taught four vows; Mahavira added brahmacharya.

16. Anekantavada in Jainism means

    1. many-sided nature of truth
    2. strict fasting
    3. rule by the king
    4. worship of images
    Answer

    A. many-sided nature of truth

    Anekantavada says truth can be seen from many sides.

17. The Digambara and Svetambara split of Jainism is linked with

    1. a famine and Bhadrabahu
    2. the Kalinga war
    3. the Fourth Council
    4. the Nanda rule
    Answer

    A. a famine and Bhadrabahu

    Tradition links the split with a famine and Bhadrabahu's move south.

18. Which Mauryan ruler was called Amitraghata by the Greeks?

    1. Dasharatha
    2. Ashoka
    3. Chandragupta
    4. Bindusara
    Answer

    D. Bindusara

    Bindusara's name is rendered as Amitraghata.

19. Who ended the Mauryan dynasty?

    1. Kharavela
    2. Pushyamitra Sunga
    3. Simuka
    4. Menander
    Answer

    B. Pushyamitra Sunga

    Pushyamitra killed Brihadratha c. 185 BCE.

20. Which treaty followed the war between Chandragupta and Seleucus Nicator?

    1. Seleucus conquered Magadha
    2. Chandragupta paid tribute
    3. Both became monks
    4. Seleucus gave up eastern provinces and received elephants
    Answer

    D. Seleucus gave up eastern provinces and received elephants

    Seleucus gave up his eastern lands for 500 elephants.

21. The Dhamma-mahamatras were appointed by Ashoka to

    1. command the army
    2. build stupas
    3. spread and watch the work of dhamma
    4. collect land tax
    Answer

    C. spread and watch the work of dhamma

    They worked for the welfare of all sects and people.

22. The Barabar caves were gifted to which sect?

    1. Ajivikas
    2. Digambaras
    3. Vaishnavas
    4. Charvakas
    Answer

    A. Ajivikas

    Ashoka and Dasharatha gave caves to Ajivika monks.

23. James Prinsep is known in Mauryan history for

    1. writing Indika
    2. deciphering the Brahmi script
    3. writing the Arthashastra
    4. finding Sanchi
    Answer

    B. deciphering the Brahmi script

    Prinsep read Brahmi in 1837, opening Ashoka's edicts.

24. Which Bodhisattva-based branch is linked with worship of Buddha images?

    1. Ajivika
    2. Digambara
    3. Mahayana
    4. Theravada
    Answer

    C. Mahayana

    Mahayana uses images and Bodhisattvas.

25. Which Mahajanapada was known for its rich iron and the capital Ujjain?

    1. Kashi
    2. Malla
    3. Anga
    4. Avanti
    Answer

    D. Avanti

    Avanti had Ujjain in the north and Mahishmati in the south.

26. The Eightfold Path of the Buddha is called

    1. the Middle Path
    2. Syadvada
    3. Triratna
    4. Niyati
    Answer

    A. the Middle Path

    It avoids luxury and extreme self-denial.

27. Statements: 1. Vajji was a gana-sangha. 2. Magadha was a gana-sangha. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Magadha was a monarchy.

28. Statements: 1. Mahavira added brahmacharya to the vows. 2. The Jain canon was written in Sanskrit only. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Agamas are in Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi).

29. Statements: 1. The Second Buddhist council was at Vaishali. 2. The Fourth council was under Ashoka. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The fourth council was under Kanishka in Kashmir.

30. Statements: 1. Ashoka's dhamma was a new religion. 2. It asked for respect to elders and tolerance. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Dhamma was a moral code, not a new religion.

31. Statements: 1. Pataliputra was the first capital of Magadha. 2. Rajagriha was an early Magadhan capital. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Rajagriha was the early capital; Pataliputra came later.

32. Statements: 1. Ashoka's Maski edict mentions his name. 2. All Ashokan edicts are in Brahmi script. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Some edicts used Kharosthi, Greek and Aramaic.

33. Match the pair correctly:

    1. Sabakami - Third council
    2. Moggaliputta Tissa - Fourth council
    3. Mahakassapa - First council
    4. Vasumitra - Second council
    Answer

    C. Mahakassapa - First council

    Mahakassapa led the first council at Rajagriha.

34. Which pair is correctly matched?

    1. Kushinagar - first sermon
    2. Bodh Gaya - birth of the Buddha
    3. Sarnath - death of the Buddha
    4. Lumbini - birth of the Buddha
    Answer

    D. Lumbini - birth of the Buddha

    Lumbini is the birthplace.

35. A Mauryan city was run by committees. How many members did each of the six committees have, in the account of Megasthenes?

    1. Seven
    2. Three
    3. Five
    4. Ten
    Answer

    C. Five

    There were six committees of five members each.

36. The saptanga theory of the state includes

    1. king, priest, trader, farmer, soldier, clerk, scribe
    2. only king and army
    3. only treasury and ally
    4. king, ministers, territory, fort, treasury, army, ally
    Answer

    D. king, ministers, territory, fort, treasury, army, ally

    Kautilya listed seven parts of the state.

37. The state emblem of India was taken from the capital at

    1. Sanchi
    2. Lauriya
    3. Sarnath
    4. Vaishali
    Answer

    C. Sarnath

    It is the Sarnath lion capital of Ashoka.

38. Ashoka's missionaries to Sri Lanka were

    1. Ananda and Upali
    2. Mahendra and Sanghamitra
    3. Sariputta and Moggallana
    4. Moggaliputta and Upagupta
    Answer

    B. Mahendra and Sanghamitra

    His son and daughter carried Buddhism to Sri Lanka.

39. Which of the following is a likely cause of Mauryan decline?

    1. Spread of iron
    2. Fall of Magadha's rivers
    3. Weak successors and financial strain
    4. Foreign conquest by the Kushans
    Answer

    C. Weak successors and financial strain

    Weak successors, strain on resources and revolts weakened the empire.

40. Which of these shows the Mauryan reach into the Deccan?

    1. Chola temples
    2. Ashokan rock edicts in the Andhra region
    3. Satavahana coins
    4. Gupta inscriptions
    Answer

    B. Ashokan rock edicts in the Andhra region

    Edicts such as those at Yerragudi are found in Andhra.

41. Nagarjuna, linked with the Andhra region, is the founder of which school?

    1. Digambara
    2. Theravada
    3. Sarvastivada
    4. Madhyamika
    Answer

    D. Madhyamika

    Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamika school of Mahayana.

42. Which statement about the Magadhan rise is correct?

    1. It lay west of the Indus
    2. It was ruled by gana-sangha from the start
    3. Iron mines and river routes helped its growth
    4. It had no standing army
    Answer

    C. Iron mines and river routes helped its growth

    Iron, rivers and elephants helped Magadha.

43. Which of the following is a feature of Buddhism not found in Vedic ritual religion?

    1. Belief in the Vedas as final truth
    2. Priestly control of rites
    3. Worship of Indra
    4. Rejection of animal sacrifice and caste rank
    Answer

    D. Rejection of animal sacrifice and caste rank

    Buddhism rejected sacrifices and birth-based rank.