Peninsular Dynasties

What to remember

• The Pallavas (Kanchi) and the Chalukyas (Badami) fought for centuries; both gave South India its early stone temples, and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi tied the Andhra region to this story.
• The Rashtrakutas (north Deccan) fought the Pratiharas and Palas; the Cholas built a strong navy, a village-based administration and the great Dravida temples.
• The Hoysalas and Yadavas were later Deccan powers whose rule ended with the Delhi Sultanate's raids in the early 14th century.

Pallavas of Kanchi (c. 6th to 9th century CE)

Early Pallavas used Prakrit and Sanskrit charters and are known from the Andhra region. The great line began with Simhavishnu, who defeated the Kalabhras and the Cholas and made Kanchi (Kanchipuram) the capital.

Mahendravarman I wrote the Sanskrit play Mattavilasa Prahasana and was a patron of music and painting. He had the title Vichitrachitta and cut the first rock-cut mandapa temples. He gave up Jainism for Shaivism under the saint Appar. He lost battles to Pulakeshin II.

Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) defeated Pulakeshin II c. 642 CE and captured Vatapi. His port Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) gets its name from him. Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchi in his time. Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha) built the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram. Nandivarman II built the Vaikuntha Perumal temple. The last strong Pallava, Aparajita, was beaten by the Chola king Aditya I late in the 9th century.

Administration. The kingdom was divided into mandalams, then kottams (districts), nadus and ur (villages). Village assemblies, called sabha (Brahmin villages) and ur (other villages), looked after local matters. Land grants to Brahmanas (brahmadeya) and temples (devadana) were common. Kanchi had a famous ghatika, a centre of Sanskrit learning. Dandin and Bharavi (Kiratarjuniya) are linked with the Pallava court.

Bhakti. The Shaiva saints (Nayanars) and Vaishnava saints (Alvars) sang in Tamil, taught devotion to a personal god and opposed Buddhism and Jainism.

Pallava art in four stages

Chalukyas of Badami (c. 543 to 753 CE)

Pulakeshin I founded the kingdom with Vatapi (Badami) as capital. Pulakeshin II (c. 610 to 642) was the greatest. He defeated Harsha on the Narmada, and the Aihole inscription (by Ravikirti, in Sanskrit) praises this. He also took the eastern Deccan, and placed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana in charge there. This gave rise to the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He fought the Pallavas, and Narasimhavarman I took Vatapi after his death. The last ruler of Badami, Kirtivarman II, lost to the Rashtrakuta Dantidurga.

Art. Aihole (Durga temple, Lad Khan temple), Badami (rock-cut caves) and Pattadakal (Virupaksha temple, built by a queen, Lokamahadevi) are famous. The Chalukyas mixed northern (Nagara) and southern (Dravida) elements, and this blend is later called Vesara. Pattadakal is a world heritage site. The paintings of Ajanta in one cave show a Persian embassy received by Pulakeshin II.

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. They ruled the Andhra region from Vengi (near Eluru) for several centuries. Kubja Vishnuvardhana is the founder. Vijayaditya and later kings gave grants and built temples. They had close marriage ties with the Cholas, and Kulottunga I was from this family. Telugu literature began under their court with Nannaya's Telugu Mahabharata, in the time of Rajaraja Narendra, a famous Eastern Chalukya king in the 11th century. Their capital moved later to Rajahmundry.

Kalyani (Western) Chalukyas. Tailapa II overthrew the Rashtrakutas c. 973 CE. The capital was later Kalyani. Vikramaditya VI was the best king and started the Chalukya-Vikrama era. Bilhana wrote the Vikramankadevacharita in his praise, and Vijnaneshwara wrote the Mitakshara, an important law commentary. Someshvara III wrote the Manasollasa, an encyclopedia. They built temples at Lakkundi, Ittagi and Gadag in the Vesara style. They fought the Cholas for the control of Vengi.

Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (c. 753 to 973 CE)

Dantidurga overthrew the Badami Chalukyas and founded the kingdom with Manyakheta (Malkhed) as capital. Krishna I built the monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora, carved from a single rock. Govinda III was a great warrior who reached the Himalayas. Amoghavarsha I (c. 814 to 878) ruled long, supported Jainism, and wrote the Kavirajamarga, the earliest Kannada work on poetics. Indra III raided Kanauj. Krishna III defeated the Cholas at Takkolam (c. 949) and held land in the far south.

The Rashtrakutas joined the tripartite struggle with the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Palas for Kanauj. The Arab traveller Sulaiman called the Rashtrakuta king one of the four great kings of the world. They had trade ties with Arabs, which brought wealth to the west coast. Literature: Pampa wrote the Kannada Adipurana and Vikramarjunavijaya, and Jinasena the Adipurana in Sanskrit. Ellora and Elephanta caves are also associated with their time.

Cholas of Thanjavur (c. 850 to 1279 CE)

Vijayalaya took Thanjavur c. 850 and founded the line. Aditya I ended Pallava power. Parantaka I has the famous Uttaramerur inscriptions about village rule, but his Chola army was defeated by Krishna III at Takkolam.

Rajaraja I (985 to 1014) was a great conqueror. He took north Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of the Chera and Pandya lands, and built a powerful navy. He built the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur. Rajendra I took the title Gangaikonda Chola after his campaign to the Ganga. He founded Gangaikondacholapuram as capital and sent a naval raid to Srivijaya (in Southeast Asia). Kulottunga I united the Chola and Eastern Chalukya lines and abolished some tolls ("sungam tavirtta"). The Cholas declined by the 13th century because of the Pandyas and Hoysalas.

Administration. The empire had mandalams, valanadus, nadus and ur. Revenue came from land, with careful survey and regular grants. The village was self-governing. The Uttaramerur records describe a system with ward-wise selection of members, who used the pot-ticket method (kudavolai), and committees for gardens, tanks, justice and gold. Qualifications and bans for members are listed. Merchant guilds such as Manigramam and Ayyavole (Ainnurruvar) traded across the sea.

Art. Dravida temple architecture reached its peak. The vimana (tower) is high and the gopuram (gateway) later grew grand. Famous temples: the Brihadisvara at Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram, and the Airavatesvara at Darasuram. Chola bronzes (Nataraja) were made by the lost-wax method. Literature: Kamban's Tamil Ramayana (Ramavataram) and Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam.

Hoysalas of Dorasamudra (c. 11th to 14th century)

They rose in Karnataka as feudatories of the Chalukyas. Vishnuvardhana made the kingdom independent, and made Belur and Dorasamudra (Halebidu) important. After a victory at Talakad he built the Chennakeshava temple at Belur. He came under the influence of Ramanuja and left Jainism for Vaishnavism. Ballala II and Vira Ballala III followed; the last was defeated by the Delhi Sultanate raids. The Hoysala temples (Halebidu, Belur, Somnathpur) stand on star-shaped platforms, are made of soft soapstone and have fine carving.

Yadavas of Devagiri (c. 12th to 14th century)

They were first feudatories of the Chalukyas. Bhillama V founded the kingdom with Devagiri (Daulatabad) as capital. Singhana was the greatest king. Ramachandra was defeated by Alauddin Khalji in 1296. Under them the Marathi saint Jnaneshwar wrote Jnaneshwari, and the minister Hemadri wrote Chaturvarga Chintamani. Sarangadeva wrote the music book Sangita Ratnakara.

Dynasties compared

Common threads

These dynasties gave regular grants of land and villages to temples and Brahmanas. Temples became centres of learning, banking, art and local life. Regional languages (Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Marathi) grew in court and temple use, along with Sanskrit. Kings used titles such as Maharajadhiraja. Rulers fought again and again over rich river valleys like the Tungabhadra and the Krishna-Godavari delta (Vengi), which is why the Andhra region was often a battlefield of Chalukya, Pallava, Rashtrakuta and Chola armies.

Exam traps

• Pulakeshin II beat Harsha; Narasimhavarman I of the Pallavas beat Pulakeshin II.
• The Aihole inscription (Ravikirti) is for Pulakeshin II; the Allahabad inscription is for Samudragupta.
• Kubja Vishnuvardhana founded the Eastern Chalukya line, not the Western.
• Mahendravarman wrote Mattavilasa Prahasana; Bilhana wrote the Vikramankadevacharita.
• Kailasa temple at Ellora is Rashtrakuta; Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is Pallava.
• Brihadisvara temple is Rajaraja I; Gangaikondacholapuram is Rajendra I.
• Takkolam (c. 949): Krishna III beat the Cholas.
• Belur is Chennakeshava; Halebidu is Hoysaleswara.
• Mitakshara is by Vijnaneshwara in Kalyani Chalukya times.

One-liners

• Mamallapuram is named after Narasimhavarman I Mamalla.
• Pattadakal's Virupaksha temple was built by Lokamahadevi.
• Amoghavarsha I wrote the Kavirajamarga.
• The Kudavolai system is described in the Uttaramerur inscriptions.
• Vijayalaya founded the Chola line at Thanjavur.
• Rajendra I took the title Gangaikonda Chola.
• Nannaya began the Telugu Mahabharata under Rajaraja Narendra.
• Kulottunga I joined the Chola and Eastern Chalukya families.
• Vikramaditya VI began the Chalukya-Vikrama era.
• Ramachandra of the Yadavas lost to Alauddin Khalji.
• The Hoysala temples have star-shaped plans.
• Kamban wrote the Tamil Ramavataram.

Practice questions

1. Which dynasty had Kanchi as its capital?

   1. Rashtrakutas
   2. Pallavas
   3. Hoysalas
   4. Chalukyas of Badami
   Answer

   B. Pallavas

   Pallavas ruled from Kanchi.

2. Who built the Kailasa temple at Ellora?

   1. Vishnuvardhana
   2. Narasimhavarman II
   3. Krishna I
   4. Rajaraja I
   Answer

   C. Krishna I

   The Rashtrakuta king Krishna I built it from a single rock.

3. Who built the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur?

   1. Rajendra I
   2. Rajaraja I
   3. Kulottunga I
   4. Parantaka I
   Answer

   B. Rajaraja I

   Rajaraja I built the great Thanjavur temple.

4. The Aihole inscription praises which king?

   1. Samudragupta
   2. Amoghavarsha
   3. Harsha
   4. Pulakeshin II
   Answer

   D. Pulakeshin II

   Ravikirti wrote it for Pulakeshin II.

5. Which Pallava ruler founded Mamallapuram's fame and is called Mamalla?

   1. Nandivarman II
   2. Mahendravarman I
   3. Narasimhavarman I
   4. Simhavishnu
   Answer

   C. Narasimhavarman I

   Mamallapuram is named after him.

6. Who founded the Rashtrakuta kingdom?

   1. Amoghavarsha
   2. Krishna III
   3. Govinda III
   4. Dantidurga
   Answer

   D. Dantidurga

   Dantidurga overthrew the Badami Chalukyas.

7. Which dynasty built the Chennakeshava temple at Belur?

   1. Yadavas
   2. Hoysalas
   3. Pallavas
   4. Cholas
   Answer

   B. Hoysalas

   Vishnuvardhana built it.

8. What was the capital of the Yadavas?

   1. Manyakheta
   2. Kalyani
   3. Devagiri
   4. Dorasamudra
   Answer

   C. Devagiri

   Devagiri (Daulatabad) was the Yadava capital.

9. Who founded the Eastern Chalukya line of Vengi?

   1. Tailapa II
   2. Vikramaditya VI
   3. Pulakeshin I
   4. Kubja Vishnuvardhana
   Answer

   D. Kubja Vishnuvardhana

   He was the brother of Pulakeshin II.

10. Which Chola king took the title Gangaikonda Chola?

    1. Vijayalaya
    2. Rajendra I
    3. Aditya I
    4. Rajaraja I
    Answer

    B. Rajendra I

    Rajendra I marched to the Ganga.

11. Who wrote the Mattavilasa Prahasana?

    1. Narasimhavarman I
    2. Amoghavarsha
    3. Bilhana
    4. Mahendravarman I
    Answer

    D. Mahendravarman I

    Mahendravarman I wrote this Sanskrit farce.

12. The Kavirajamarga, an early Kannada work, was written in the time of

    1. Vishnuvardhana
    2. Pulakeshin II
    3. Amoghavarsha I
    4. Singhana
    Answer

    C. Amoghavarsha I

    It is attributed to the Rashtrakuta court of Amoghavarsha I.

13. Who wrote the Vikramankadevacharita?

    1. Harishena
    2. Bilhana
    3. Pampa
    4. Ravikirti
    Answer

    B. Bilhana

    Bilhana praised Vikramaditya VI.

14. The Mitakshara law commentary was written in the court of

    1. Vikramaditya VI
    2. Narasimhavarman I
    3. Amoghavarsha I
    4. Rajaraja I
    Answer

    A. Vikramaditya VI

    Vijnaneshwara wrote it in Kalyani Chalukya times.

15. The Kudavolai (pot-ticket) election system is recorded in which inscriptions?

    1. Uttaramerur
    2. Junagadh
    3. Allahabad
    4. Aihole
    Answer

    A. Uttaramerur

    They describe Chola-age village assembly rules.

16. Pattadakal's Virupaksha temple was built under the care of

    1. Queen Gautami Balashri
    2. Queen Lokamahadevi
    3. Queen Prabhavati
    4. Queen Kumaradevi
    Answer

    B. Queen Lokamahadevi

    A Chalukya queen had it built.

17. Who defeated the Chalukya Kirtivarman II?

    1. Tailapa II
    2. Krishna III
    3. Govinda III
    4. Dantidurga
    Answer

    D. Dantidurga

    Dantidurga ended the Badami line.

18. The Chola army was beaten at Takkolam by

    1. Amoghavarsha I
    2. Dantidurga
    3. Krishna III
    4. Indra III
    Answer

    C. Krishna III

    Rashtrakuta Krishna III won at Takkolam c. 949.

19. Which king of the Eastern Chalukyas is linked with Nannaya's Telugu Mahabharata?

    1. Rajaraja Narendra
    2. Vijayaditya II
    3. Kulottunga III
    4. Kubja Vishnuvardhana
    Answer

    A. Rajaraja Narendra

    Nannaya wrote under Rajaraja Narendra.

20. Which Chola king united the Chola and Eastern Chalukya lines?

    1. Rajaraja I
    2. Kulottunga I
    3. Aditya I
    4. Parantaka I
    Answer

    B. Kulottunga I

    Kulottunga I came from the Eastern Chalukya family through Chola marriage.

21. Which is a feature of Hoysala temples?

    1. Plain walls
    2. Rock-cut monolith
    3. Brick construction
    4. Star-shaped plan and soapstone
    Answer

    D. Star-shaped plan and soapstone

    Hoysala temples have star-shaped platforms of soft soapstone.

22. Which saint wrote Jnaneshwari under the Yadavas?

    1. Ramanuja
    2. Tukaram
    3. Jnaneshwar
    4. Appar
    Answer

    C. Jnaneshwar

    Jnaneshwar wrote it in Marathi.

23. Who defeated the Yadava king Ramachandra in 1296?

    1. Ghiyasuddin
    2. Malik Kafur
    3. Alauddin Khalji
    4. Muhammad bin Tughluq
    Answer

    C. Alauddin Khalji

    Alauddin Khalji raided Devagiri in 1296.

24. The Pancha Pandava rathas belong to which Pallava style?

    1. Mahendra
    2. Mamalla
    3. Nandivarman
    4. Rajasimha
    Answer

    B. Mamalla

    The monolithic rathas are Mamalla style.

25. Which is the main feature of the Mahendra style of Pallava art?

    1. Rock-cut mandapas
    2. Structural temples
    3. Monolithic rathas
    4. Gopurams
    Answer

    A. Rock-cut mandapas

    Mahendravarman I excavated rock-cut mandapas.

26. The Shore temple at Mamallapuram belongs to which ruler?

    1. Mahendravarman I
    2. Nandivarman II
    3. Aparajita
    4. Narasimhavarman II
    Answer

    D. Narasimhavarman II

    It is of the Rajasimha style.

27. The Manasollasa, an encyclopedia, was written by

    1. Hemadri
    2. Bilhana
    3. Someshvara III
    4. Nannaya
    Answer

    C. Someshvara III

    Someshvara III of the Kalyani Chalukyas wrote it.

28. Statements: 1. Pulakeshin II defeated Harsha. 2. Narasimhavarman I took Vatapi. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both events are recorded; the Pallava capture was c. 642.

29. Statements: 1. The Kailasa temple at Ellora is Pallava. 2. The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is Pallava. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    The Ellora Kailasa is Rashtrakuta.

30. Statements: 1. Rajendra I built Gangaikondacholapuram. 2. Rajaraja I raided Srivijaya. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Srivijaya raid was by Rajendra I.

31. Statements: 1. Belur has the Chennakeshava temple. 2. Halebidu has the Hoysaleswara temple. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Both are Hoysala temples.

32. Statements: 1. The Rashtrakutas took part in the tripartite struggle. 2. The Cholas founded Manyakheta. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Manyakheta was the Rashtrakuta capital.

33. Statements: 1. The Eastern Chalukyas ruled the Andhra region from Vengi. 2. Kubja Vishnuvardhana was a Rashtrakuta. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    He was a Chalukya prince.

34. Match the pair correctly:

    1. Pampa - Manasollasa
    2. Bilhana - Kavirajamarga
    3. Hemadri - Mitakshara
    4. Ravikirti - Aihole inscription
    Answer

    D. Ravikirti - Aihole inscription

    Ravikirti wrote the Aihole inscription.

35. Which statement about Chola village administration is correct?

    1. Officers were appointed only by the king
    2. There was no local body
    3. Villages paid no revenue
    4. Members were chosen by lot with set qualifications
    Answer

    D. Members were chosen by lot with set qualifications

    Uttaramerur records show selection by lot with rules.

36. Why were the Andhra region and Vengi often fought over?

    1. It lay in the Himalayas
    2. It lay between rival Deccan and Tamil powers and was rich
    3. It had no rivers
    4. It had no ports
    Answer

    B. It lay between rival Deccan and Tamil powers and was rich

    The fertile Krishna-Godavari delta lay between rival powers.

37. The Chola bronzes were made by which method?

    1. Wood carving
    2. Lost-wax
    3. Stone carving
    4. Moulding in clay only
    Answer

    B. Lost-wax

    The lost-wax method was used.

38. Which Pallava king's time did Hiuen Tsang see Kanchi?

    1. Nandivarman II
    2. Aparajita
    3. Simhavishnu
    4. Narasimhavarman I
    Answer

    D. Narasimhavarman I

    He visited Kanchi in Mamalla's time.

39. The Pallava ghatika at Kanchi was

    1. a coin
    2. a temple tank
    3. a tax
    4. a centre of Sanskrit learning
    Answer

    D. a centre of Sanskrit learning

    Ghatika means a college for scholars.

40. Which Chalukyas started the Chalukya-Vikrama era?

    1. Vikramaditya VI
    2. Pulakeshin I
    3. Someshvara I
    4. Kubja Vishnuvardhana
    Answer

    A. Vikramaditya VI

    Vikramaditya VI started the era.

41. The Rashtrakuta capital was

    1. Dorasamudra
    2. Manyakheta
    3. Kalyani
    4. Vengi
    Answer

    B. Manyakheta

    Manyakheta is today's Malkhed.

42. Which pair of battle and result is correct?

    1. Talakad - Dantidurga won
    2. Venni - Rajaraja I won
    3. Takkolam - Krishna III defeated the Cholas
    4. Narmada - Harsha defeated Pulakeshin II
    Answer

    C. Takkolam - Krishna III defeated the Cholas

    Krishna III won at Takkolam; Pulakeshin II won on the Narmada.