Post-Mauryan India

What to remember

• After the Mauryas (c. 200 BCE to 300 CE), the north saw Sungas, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians and Kushans; the south saw the Satavahanas and the Sangam kingdoms.
• Trade, especially with Rome, towns, coins and new crafts grew; Buddhist art (Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati) flourished.
• The Satavahanas of the Deccan and Andhra ruled for a long period, promoted Prakrit, Buddhism and Brahmanical rites, and earned wealth from trade and ports.

The north after the Mauryas

Sungas (c. 185 BCE onwards). Pushyamitra Sunga, a Mauryan general, killed Brihadratha. He is said to have performed Ashvamedha sacrifices and patronised Brahmanical religion. Agnimitra, his successor, is the hero of Kalidasa's play Malavikagnimitra. The Greek envoy Heliodorus set up a Garuda pillar at Besnagar (Vidisha) for Vasudeva, showing that a Greek had adopted Bhagavata religion. The great stupa at Bharhut was decorated in their time, and the Sanchi stupa was enlarged. The grammarian Patanjali (Mahabhashya) belongs to this age. The Kanvas followed the Sungas, and were later removed by the Satavahanas.

Indo-Greeks. Greek rulers from Bactria entered the northwest. Demetrius and Menander (Milinda) were notable. Menander ruled from Sakala (Sialkot) and was converted by the monk Nagasena; their talk is recorded in the Milindapanha. Indo-Greeks issued the first coins that clearly show the king's name and image with legends in Greek and Prakrit. Their contacts led to the Gandhara art style, with Greek-Roman forms in Buddhist art.

Shakas (Scythians). They came from Central Asia and set up branches in Taxila, Mathura, Ujjain and the western Deccan. The most famous Shaka ruler, Rudradaman I (c. 2nd century CE), ruled Gujarat and Kathiawar. His Junagadh rock inscription is the first long inscription in good Sanskrit. It tells of the repair of the Sudarshana lake, first built in Mauryan times. The Shaka Era (78 CE) is today the national calendar of India. Nahapana of the Kshaharata line was defeated by the Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Parthians (Pahlavas). Gondophernes was the best known. A tradition says St Thomas came in his time.

Kushans. The Yuezhi tribes were pushed from China and the Kushan branch led by Kujula Kadphises united them. Vima Kadphises issued many gold coins. Kanishka (c. 78 CE or c. 127 CE; scholars differ, so say "c. 2nd century CE") was the greatest. His capital was Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura was a second capital. He patronised the Buddhist council in Kashmir, which led to the rise of Mahayana. Scholars at his court were Ashvaghosha (Buddhacharita), Vasumitra, Nagarjuna and the physician Charaka (Charaka Samhita). Kushan rule gave safe routes for the Silk Route and brought wealth. Two art schools developed: the Gandhara school (Greek-Roman style, grey schist stone) and the Mathura school (Indian style, red sandstone). Kushan coins show Indian, Greek and Iranian gods, including Shiva with the bull.

Foreign rulers and Indian society. The new rulers were treated as Kshatriyas by many, took Indian names and gave gifts to Buddhist and Brahmanical bodies. Kushan rulers used titles like "Devaputra" (son of god) and "Maharaja rajatiraja", and made a practice of giving kings a divine status. They used provincial governors called satraps (kshatrapas) and sometimes ruled with joint kings. These rulers also brought strong cavalry traditions from Central Asia. Towns and crafts grew, and guilds and merchants gave much help to monasteries. Because of these contacts, new ideas on astronomy, medicine and art came to India from Central Asia and the Greek world.

Satavahanas

The Satavahanas (called Andhras in the Puranas) were a Deccan power that rose after the Mauryas. Their first king, Simuka, founded the line c. the first century BCE. The early capital was Pratishthana (Paithan) and later centres were in the Andhra region such as Amaravati (Dhanyakataka) and other towns. Their rule extended across the Deccan from the western coast to the eastern coast.

Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest ruler. His mother Gautami Balashri's Nashik inscription calls him destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas and Yavanas, and defeater of Nahapana. He is also called "lord of the Deccan" (Dakshinapatheshwara). Vasishthiputra Pulumavi continued the rule, and Yajna Sri Satakarni issued coins with a ship, which shows sea trade. Satavahana kings took their mother's name before their own (matronymic), for instance Gautamiputra.

Administration. The kingdom was divided into aharas (districts). Officers were called amatyas and mahasenapatis. In the military, a Gaulmika commanded a small unit. Rural areas had officers, and land grants were given to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks, which freed lands from tax. This practice grew into a major feature of later times. Feudal traits like sub-rulers (Maharathis, Mahabhojas) appear. Language was Prakrit written in Brahmi. Hala's Gathasaptashati (Gatha Saptasati) is a Prakrit work of poems.

Religion and art. The Satavahanas supported Brahmanical sacrifices (Ashvamedha, Rajasuya) and also gave gifts to Buddhists and Jains. Buddhist monuments grew in Andhra: the Amaravati stupa with limestone panels, and Nagarjunakonda, whose main work is from the time of the Ikshvakus who followed them. Rock-cut caves at Karle, Nashik, Ajanta (early caves) and Junnar date from this age.

Trade. Ports on both coasts connected the Deccan to the Roman world, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. Roman gold came for pepper, pearls, cotton cloth, and gems. The Roman coins found in the south show a large trade. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a Greek trade guide, names the ports and goods. Roman writer Pliny complained that India drained Rome's gold. The Satavahanas issued lead, potin and copper coins, with the Brahmi legends, and also silver ones in the later period. Craft guilds (shrenis) of weavers, oil pressers and others gave gifts to monasteries and had local power.

Sangam age in the far south

The Sangam age (c. 300 BCE to 300 CE) is named after the assembly of poets at Madurai under the Pandya kings. The literature is in Tamil: Tolkappiyam (grammar), Ettuthokai (eight anthologies), Pattuppattu (ten idylls). Later epics are Silappadikaram (by Ilango Adigal) and Manimekalai (by Sattanar). Kural by Tiruvalluvar is a later work, usually dated after the Sangam period.

Three kingdoms. Chera in the west (capital Vanji, emblem bow), Chola in the Kaveri basin (capital Uraiyur, later Puhar, emblem tiger) and Pandya in the south (capital Madurai, emblem fish). Karikala was a great Chola king who won the battle of Venni and built flood banks on the Kaveri. Senguttuvan was a Chera king who set up a temple to Kannagi, the heroine of the Silappadikaram.

Economy and society. The land was divided into five landscape types (tinai): kurinji (hills), mullai (forest), marutham (farm land), neithal (coast) and palai (dry land). People were farmers, herders, fishers and hunters. Ports included Puhar (Kaveripattinam), Muziris (Musiri), Korkai and Arikamedu. Roman ships took pepper, pearls and ivory. Tribes fought many wars and bards (panar) received gifts. There was a free social life, and no rigid caste order early on.

Polity of the Sangam kingdoms. The king (ko or mannan) was helped by councils of elders. Village assemblies such as the ur and manram met to decide local matters. Wars gave booty and gifts, and kings shared the spoil with bards and warriors. Officers collected a share of produce and port duties. Poems praise kings who gave generous gifts and fed their armies.

Exam traps

• The Junagadh inscription is of Rudradaman (Shaka), not Gautamiputra.
• The Nashik inscription praising Gautamiputra was issued by his mother Gautami Balashri.
• Gandhara art is Greek-influenced (grey schist); Mathura art is indigenous (red sandstone).
• Kanishka's council was in Kashmir; Ashoka's third council was at Pataliputra.
• Menander (Milinda) was a Greek; Nagasena was the Buddhist monk.
• Heliodorus was Greek but followed Vasudeva (Bhagavata), not Buddhism.
• The Chera emblem is the bow; Chola is the tiger; Pandya is the fish.
• Silappadikaram is a Tamil epic by Ilango Adigal; Tolkappiyam is a grammar.
• The Satavahana rulers had matronymics; the Ikshvakus followed them at Nagarjunakonda.

One-liners

• Pushyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty.
• Menander's capital was Sakala.
• Rudradaman repaired the Sudarshana lake.
• Kanishka's capital was Purushapura.
• The Shaka Era began in 78 CE.
• Charaka wrote on medicine at the Kushan court.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni defeated Nahapana.
• Gathasaptashati is attributed to Hala.
• Pratishthana (Paithan) was an early Satavahana capital.
• Karikala fought at Venni.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes Indian ports.
• Silappadikaram has Kannagi as its heroine.

Practice questions

1. Who founded the Sunga dynasty?

   1. Agnimitra
   2. Pushyamitra Sunga
   3. Simuka
   4. Menander
   Answer

   B. Pushyamitra Sunga

   Pushyamitra killed the last Mauryan king and founded the line.

2. Which Greek king converted to Buddhism through the monk Nagasena?

   1. Gondophernes
   2. Demetrius
   3. Menander
   4. Heliodorus
   Answer

   C. Menander

   Their talk is recorded in the Milindapanha.

3. The Junagadh rock inscription belongs to

   1. Kanishka
   2. Pushyamitra
   3. Gautamiputra Satakarni
   4. Rudradaman
   Answer

   D. Rudradaman

   It is Rudradaman's long Sanskrit inscription.

4. Who was the greatest Kushan ruler?

   1. Kanishka
   2. Kujula Kadphises
   3. Vima Kadphises
   4. Gondophernes
   Answer

   A. Kanishka

   Kanishka was the greatest Kushan king.

5. What was the capital of Kanishka?

   1. Madurai
   2. Purushapura
   3. Ujjain
   4. Pataliputra
   Answer

   B. Purushapura

   Purushapura is the modern Peshawar.

6. Who was the first king of the Satavahanas?

   1. Pulumavi
   2. Gautamiputra Satakarni
   3. Simuka
   4. Hala
   Answer

   C. Simuka

   Simuka founded the Satavahana line.

7. Which Satavahana ruler defeated Nahapana?

   1. Yajna Sri Satakarni
   2. Pulumavi
   3. Simuka
   4. Gautamiputra Satakarni
   Answer

   D. Gautamiputra Satakarni

   His mother's Nashik inscription records the defeat.

8. The Sangam literature is in which language?

   1. Tamil
   2. Telugu
   3. Pali
   4. Prakrit
   Answer

   A. Tamil

   Sangam poetry is in Tamil.

9. What was the emblem of the Chera kings?

   1. Fish
   2. Bow
   3. Tiger
   4. Lion
   Answer

   B. Bow

   Chera emblem was the bow.

10. Who wrote the epic Silappadikaram?

    1. Sattanar
    2. Tiruvalluvar
    3. Ilango Adigal
    4. Tolkappiyar
    Answer

    C. Ilango Adigal

    Ilango Adigal wrote it with Kannagi as heroine.

11. The Heliodorus pillar at Besnagar was dedicated to

    1. Vasudeva
    2. Buddha
    3. Indra
    4. Shiva
    Answer

    A. Vasudeva

    A Greek envoy set up a Garuda pillar for Vasudeva.

12. Which art school used grey schist and showed Greek-Roman influence?

    1. Sarnath
    2. Gandhara
    3. Mathura
    4. Amaravati
    Answer

    B. Gandhara

    Gandhara art used grey schist and Greek-Roman forms.

13. Which Kushan-age scholar wrote the Buddhacharita?

    1. Vasumitra
    2. Nagarjuna
    3. Charaka
    4. Ashvaghosha
    Answer

    D. Ashvaghosha

    Ashvaghosha wrote the Buddhacharita.

14. Which of the following was a physician at the Kushan court?

    1. Charaka
    2. Kautilya
    3. Hala
    4. Patanjali
    Answer

    A. Charaka

    Charaka wrote the Charaka Samhita.

15. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is

    1. an epic poem
    2. a Greek guide to trade ports
    3. a Satavahana law book
    4. a Buddhist canon
    Answer

    B. a Greek guide to trade ports

    It describes ports and goods of the Indian Ocean trade.

16. Matronymics were used by which dynasty?

    1. Mauryas
    2. Guptas
    3. Satavahanas
    4. Kushans
    Answer

    C. Satavahanas

    Satavahana kings added their mother's name, like Gautamiputra.

17. The Gathasaptashati, a collection of Prakrit verses, is attributed to

    1. Kanishka
    2. Simuka
    3. Rudradaman
    4. Hala
    Answer

    D. Hala

    It is a Prakrit anthology attributed to the Satavahana king Hala.

18. Which was an early capital of the Satavahanas?

    1. Madurai
    2. Pratishthana
    3. Purushapura
    4. Mathura
    Answer

    B. Pratishthana

    Pratishthana (Paithan) was an early capital.

19. Karikala, the Chola king, is known for

    1. founding Pataliputra
    2. issuing Kushan coins
    3. building Kailasanatha temple
    4. victory at Venni and flood banks on the Kaveri
    Answer

    D. victory at Venni and flood banks on the Kaveri

    Karikala won at Venni and built embankments on the Kaveri.

20. Which port was a major Sangam-era trading port on the western coast?

    1. Muziris
    2. Lothal
    3. Tamralipti
    4. Broach
    Answer

    A. Muziris

    Muziris traded pepper with Rome.

21. Which Chera king set up a temple for Kannagi?

    1. Gondophernes
    2. Nedunjeliyan
    3. Senguttuvan
    4. Karikala
    Answer

    C. Senguttuvan

    Senguttuvan honoured Kannagi.

22. The five landscapes of Sangam poetry are called

    1. tinai
    2. mandala
    3. janapada
    4. ahara
    Answer

    A. tinai

    Tinai refers to five poetic landscapes.

23. Which Sunga-age monument was decorated with fine carved railings?

    1. Karle cave
    2. Bharhut stupa
    3. Ajanta cave 1
    4. Kailasanatha temple
    Answer

    B. Bharhut stupa

    Bharhut was decorated in Sunga times.

24. The first long Sanskrit inscription is that of

    1. Kharavela
    2. Hala
    3. Rudradaman
    4. Ashoka
    Answer

    C. Rudradaman

    Rudradaman's Junagadh inscription is in good Sanskrit.

25. Which pair is correctly matched?

    1. Amaravati - red sandstone
    2. Mathura - grey schist
    3. Gandhara - red sandstone
    4. Gandhara - grey schist
    Answer

    D. Gandhara - grey schist

    Gandhara uses grey schist; Mathura red sandstone.

26. Match the pair correctly:

    1. Rudradaman - Kushan
    2. Menander - Shaka
    3. Kujula Kadphises - Indo-Greek
    4. Gondophernes - Parthian
    Answer

    D. Gondophernes - Parthian

    Gondophernes was a Parthian ruler.

27. Statements: 1. The Nashik inscription was issued by Gautami Balashri. 2. The Junagadh inscription was issued by Gautamiputra. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    Junagadh is Rudradaman's.

28. Statements: 1. Kushan rulers patronised Gandhara and Mathura art. 2. Kanishka held a council at Pataliputra. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    His council was in Kashmir.

29. Statements: 1. The Satavahanas gave tax-free land grants. 2. Their coins show a ship. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    C. Both 1 and 2

    Land grants and ship coins both occur in Satavahana records.

30. Statements: 1. Heliodorus was a Buddhist. 2. Menander was a Greek. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    B. 2 only

    Heliodorus followed the Bhagavata faith.

31. Statements: 1. The Sangam age had village assemblies. 2. The Kural is a work of the early Sangam. Which is correct?

    1. 1 only
    2. 2 only
    3. Both 1 and 2
    4. Neither
    Answer

    A. 1 only

    The Kural is usually dated after the main Sangam works.

32. Which kingdom had Madurai as its capital?

    1. Chola
    2. Satavahana
    3. Chera
    4. Pandya
    Answer

    D. Pandya

    Madurai was the Pandya capital.

33. Which Kushan king issued many gold coins?

    1. Gondophernes
    2. Vima Kadphises
    3. Hala
    4. Pushyamitra
    Answer

    B. Vima Kadphises

    Vima Kadphises issued extensive gold coinage.

34. Which Roman writer complained of the drain of gold to India?

    1. Strabo
    2. Megasthenes
    3. Pliny
    4. Ptolemy
    Answer

    C. Pliny

    Pliny wrote that Rome lost gold in trade with India.

35. The Shaka Era, now used in the national calendar, began in

    1. 320 CE
    2. 57 BCE
    3. 606 CE
    4. 78 CE
    Answer

    D. 78 CE

    The Shaka era began in 78 CE.

36. The Satavahanas are called by which name in the Puranas?

    1. Sungas
    2. Nandas
    3. Andhras
    4. Kadambas
    Answer

    C. Andhras

    The Puranas call them Andhras.

37. Which dynasty followed the Satavahanas at Nagarjunakonda?

    1. Mauryas
    2. Ikshvakus
    3. Pandyas
    4. Sungas
    Answer

    B. Ikshvakus

    The Ikshvakus ruled Nagarjunakonda after the Satavahanas.

38. Which statement about the Indo-Greeks is correct?

    1. They built the Sanchi stupa
    2. They founded Pataliputra
    3. They issued coins with the king's portrait and bilingual legends
    4. They were Sangam kings
    Answer

    C. They issued coins with the king's portrait and bilingual legends

    Indo-Greek coins show portraits with Greek and Prakrit legends.

39. Why did the Satavahana rulers issue coins with a ship?

    1. It reflects overseas trade
    2. It was the Buddhist symbol
    3. It shows conquest of Sri Lanka only
    4. It marks a naval fight with Rome
    Answer

    A. It reflects overseas trade

    Ship coins reflect sea trade.

40. The Mathura school of art used

    1. bronze only
    2. red sandstone and local style
    3. grey schist and Greek style
    4. marble from Amaravati
    Answer

    B. red sandstone and local style

    Mathura art was indigenous and used spotted red sandstone.

41. Which is the best description of the Ahara in the Satavahana state?

    1. A village headman
    2. A tribal council
    3. A tax
    4. A district
    Answer

    D. A district

    Ahara was a district-level division.

42. Which ancient poem collection is a set of ten idylls of Tamil poetry?

    1. Pattuppattu
    2. Manimekalai
    3. Kural
    4. Ettuthokai
    Answer

    A. Pattuppattu

    Pattuppattu means ten idylls.

43. Which statement on Satavahana society is correct?

    1. Women had no names in records
    2. There was no trade
    3. Guilds and merchants gave gifts to monasteries
    4. Kings used Greek as the court language
    Answer

    C. Guilds and merchants gave gifts to monasteries

    Guilds were donors of cave monasteries.

44. Which Greek-origin rulers entered northwest India from Bactria?

    1. Kushans
    2. Indo-Greeks
    3. Cholas
    4. Satavahanas
    Answer

    B. Indo-Greeks

    The Indo-Greeks came from Bactria into the northwest.